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Posted on December 31st, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: anthropology.
The year 2011 will probably live on in history like for example 1989. More than 32,000 hits for more than 220 posts later it is time to look back. I decided last year that this blog would probably benefit from working with guest authors; in most cases colleagues but also stories from the field by the people I work with. People like Asef Bayat, Linda Herrera, Samuli Schielke, Roel Meijer, Joas Wagemakers and others have all written one or more guest posts. Sometimes on their own work but in most cases on the Arab uprisings. The most read story in this categorie is also the most popular story on this blog: Egypt – After the Revolution, by Samuli Schielke. The second one in this category is Linda Herrera’s Two Faces of Revolution about Mohamed Bouazid and Khaled Said. Also Linda’s piece on the role of social media, Egypt’s Revolution 2.0 – The Facebook Factor has become one of the most popular pieces on this blog. Usually my weekly updates score high as well but only for a short period. An exception in this case is the update in week five featuring the Tunisia and Egypt uprisings which I basically turned into an essential reading list of that time. More can be found in the section Society & Politics in the Middle East.
For my field the other landmark in 2011 was of course the terrorist attack in Norway in July when Anders Behring Breivik literally and symbolically dropped a bomb on the myth of a tolerant Europe. One of the main debates in the Netherlands was, not very surprising, not only the link people made with Muslims and Al Qaeda when the news broke out but also if Breivik was not the ultimate consequence of Geert Wilders’ anti-Islam ideology. My own piece on the link between belief, ideology and violence where I briefly point to these issues became the most popular piece written by myself in English. The most popular entry however on Dutch issues was Annelies Moors’ take on the recent burqa debates in the Netherlands: Minister Donner as Mufti: New Developments in the Dutch ‘burqa debates’. This piece was not only read many times but also spread on several websites and among colleagues. It is not always easy and self-evident for colleagues who work with Muslims to speak out in public. In an excellent piece Maurits Berger shows what the consequences can be if one does: Campus Watch, but better – Freedom Party and Politics of Obstruction. Whatever the consequences however this blog will continue as will do I with my research. At the moment I’m rounding up my research on Salafism and trying to broaden my research scope to the issue of Muslim activism. In 2012 there will be a few posts rounding up my research on Salafism; these posts will be based upon articles and chapters I wrote as well as on the Dutch book I’m writing with my colleagues Joas Wagemakers and Carmen Becker. I already did a round up on the radicalization of Muslims – What we know and dont know. One example of my focus in Muslim activism on my blog is my report on the debate between Irshad Manji and Dutch politician Tofik Dibi on reform in Islam that was disturbed by a group of Muslim. I hope to use that blogentry as the starting point for an scientific article in 2012. And of course in 2012 I will continue to reflect on the theme of blogging and public anthropology as I did in 2011 for example in Anthropology: Blog This!.
Thanks to my guest authors 2011 is the first year that my English language articles are more popular than my Dutch language articles. Nevertheless we can see a similar pattern here. Among the most popular articles there are several on the Arab revolutions, with Nina ter Laan’s the Moroccan Exception as the number one (De Marokkaanse Uitzondering). Another popular article is my own article debunking a Dutch blogger who thinks having a prayer mark on your forehead is a sign of radicalism or even Al Qaeda influence: Analyzing the Libyan Revolution is not task for failures (Analyse van de Libische Revolutie is vooral geen voor prutsers). Also in the Dutch section a blog dealing with the ‘burqa debates’ is popular. In this case the report on a demonstration against the proposal for a ban on the ‘burqa’ by a radical group ‘See and Hear’ – Impression of a protest against the ban on the face veil’ (‘Zien en horen’ – Impressie protest verbod gezichtssluier). That Islam is a hot issue is not surprising and when transnational links between Dutch mosques and UAE organisations are revealed this gets even more attention as shown in a brief post on a Kuwaiti television program that shows the end of Ramadan in a Dutch mosque in Amsterdam (Moskee Slotervaart Amsterdam in Koeweit). And also here it is clear what the consequences can be when one speaks out in public. In one post I revealed the existence of several black lists: Supremacy and Fear – Lists of Betrayers of Nation, Culture and Race (Suprematie en Angst: Lijsten van Land-, Cultuur- en Rasverraders). The most popular story in Dutch however, and no. 2 on the overall list, is a report on the expected and contested visit of sheik Al-Maghraoui and sheikh Al-‘Arifi to the Netherlands. The first is called the pedo-imam in the Netherlands because he condones marrying under-age girls, the latter has been accused of approving the hitting of women by their men (an accusation that I think does not entirely stick). The story ‘Toothpicks, Visa and Women – the story of two sheikhs’ has become popular mainly because, I think, it is a very good and nuanced round up of the whole discussion and foremost because it is spread both by opponents and supporters of the Salafi mosques they were supposed to visit (Tandenstokers, visum en vrouwen – Een verhaal van twee sheikhs).
As every year several older posts end up high in the list of most popular. Two of them deal with the theme of an Islamic takeover of Europe. Islamizing Europe – Muslim Demographics is the most popular post in this site (when I began counting in 2006) and the Dutch post on the Islamization of the Netherlands (‘Islamisering’ van Nederland) deals with a similar theme; the former concentrating on the flawed perception of a growing Muslim community in Europe and the latter engaging with examples that appear to demonstrate that the takeover is already taking place. Only the Dutch language entry on politics and hiphop from 2007 – Politiek en Rap: Salah Edin en Appa – has been a long term hit like Muslim Demographics. Sometimes it surprises me when a post becomes very popular. Probably because there aren’t many researchers dealing with this theme my post on anime art and Muslims of last year is also very popular now. Probably two other posts (outside the guest authors category) have the potential of becoming a classic for this blog. The first one deals with the commercialization of the idea of a Dutch nation and Dutch culture and how banal racism and nationalism play a role in Dutch commercials. The blog – Dutch blend – Islam, race, nationalism and buying local in the Netherlands, is one of the most linked and spread on other blogs and webfora. The second one is the most linked blogentry and deals with the Dutch tradition of Sinterklaas and Zwarte Piet whereby the racist roots (blackface) of Zwarte Piet are explored and discussed; Jolly Black Servant – Tradition and Racism in the Netherlands. In particular Global Voices has linked to this post in several languages. There are two Dutch and one English posts that seem somewhat strange by showing up in the most popular list. First one deals with a cycling classic in Belgium, the tour of Flanders, and more in particular deals with the Flemish flags used by supporters during that race. – Ronde van Vlaanderen Vlagt – the second one with a chaotic debate on TV a few years ago ‘Rwina – Stijl in debat‘ and the third is about art, feminism and Muslim women, featuring an exhibition in 2009 – Rebelle Art – Feminism and Muslim Women. All three probably score high because they deal with a public phenomenon that is not explained in much detail anywhere else; the different flags in Belgium, an explanation of the word ‘rwina’ which is difficult to translate into Dutch or English. In the case of Rebelle Art it is probably the combination of the three topics: art, feminism and Muslim women.
For 2012 I think there will certainly be more entries by Guest Authors and given the attempt to start new research on activism there will be more reports in the categories Activism and in Notes from the Field.
Allow me to finish this last entry of 2012 to point you to some of the diamonds outside this blog. I discovered two new blogs in 2011 quicly becoming one of my weekly reads. First of all Living Anthropologically. I think Jason Antrosio’s round up of 2011 makes clear why. The next one is Aaron Bady’s Zunguzungu, just have a look at it. But also don’t forget Ethnografix, a blog by Ryan Anderson who also founded the new online magazine Anthropologies. A must read for those interested in (social) media and anthropology is John Postill’s Media/Anthropology blog. Have a look at his selection of the best of 2011. For more good anthropology blogs you can always have a look at the new site Anthropology Report that features 100 blogs (and I’m very honoured Closer is on the list). The site has a survey now and if you are quick you can still submit your favorites. If you are still hungry for more then read also the 2011 lists at Scientific American (Ladybusiness Anthropology Edition by Kate Clancy), Retort (2011 – The year in me) and Somatosphere (A year in review) and Global Voices (Egypt: 2011 in Blog Posts) and go on to Juan Cole’s Top Ten Myths about the Arab Spring. Then if you are still not satisfied read the wonderful things Subashini read in 2011. If you are still not satisfied, I dont know what will but trying coming back in 2012.
My publications in 2011 can be found HERE
Posted on December 29th, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: Blind Horses.
De jury, bestaande uit UO, LM en ondergetekende, is eruit na een tijdlang hopeloos verdeeld te zijn geweest. Er waren in totaal 25 suggesties ingestuurd en we hebben er alledrie nog eens ieder drie geselecteerd. Daaruit zijn de onderstaande nominaties gekomen. U kunt de stukken beoordelen door het toekennen van sterren; hoe meer hoe beter u het vindt. EDIT: U kunt niet meer stemmen. Uitslag volgt op 1 januari om 21.30 uur.
Hieronder vindt u de nominaties met daaronder per post het commentaar van een jurylid (aangegeven door initialen). U mag klagen waarom die en dat stuk er niet staan, maar dan had u zelf maar suggesties moeten aandragen he. U kunt stemmen tot en met 1 januari. De uitslag wordt die dag bekend gemaakt. Maar het zou ook heel goed een dag later kunnen zijn…Veel stemgenot.
Noot:Het gaat bij de uitslag om gemiddelden. Als u in een poging om persoon A te laten winnen, persoon B geen ster toekent, dan heeft dat dus geen gevolgen voor het gemiddelde van persoon B. U kunt het beste iedere genomineerde minimaal 1 ster geven. U kunt dus op alle genomineerden stemmen.
Beste Blogs
Kanker hoofddoek. « dunyahenya
Een emotioneel, onsamenhangend betoog met ‘reteslechte’ woordkeuze. Maar ze moest het even kwijt. En verdomd, het is goed, recht uit hart en ieder woord is raak. (UO)
Frontaal Naakt. » Vakantiegroet
Het is ook echt nooit goed he? U bekijkt het maar. En wij lezen het. Je kunt je wel afvragen waarom het verdorie 10 jaar moet duren voordat iemand dit schrijft. (MdK)
Zo moet integratie eruit zien? Een hilarische inburgeringscursus. (LM)
We are all Abu Imran, aren’t we??? | Wijblijvenhier.nl
Past in de beste WBH traditie. Goed geschreven, actueel en de broodnodige zelfreflectie. Stelt pijnlijke en rake vragen.(UO)
Moslims, moslims, moslims : Iets Met Woorden
Ja kan het een tikje minder? De biografie van islamisering van moslims. Heel herkenbaar. (LM)
Beste nieuws
Dempen en verbinden – Nederland net na 9/11 – Vrij Nederland
Over de verwarring, vertwijfeling en ver-islamisering direct na 9/11. Mooi, helder stuk. (MdK)
Breivik klinkt bedrieglijk vertrouwd – Aanslagen Noorwegen – TROUW
Is deel van een grotere serie. Leest u die even heren en dames journalisten? In plaats van onzin te beweren over 1500 pagina’s ‘onzin’ lees je die allemaal en publiceer je je bevinden. Compliment aan Eildert Mulder en de Trouw redactie die hem hiervoor de ruimte geeft. (LM)
Griezelen met cijfertjes van Bosma – DePers.nl
Toegegeven dit is makkelijk; Bosma onderuit halen met de cijfers. Maar je moet het wel even doen. Het is raak schieten voor open doel, maar als we daar goed in waren, waren we ook wel wereldkampioen geworden. Hulspas is beter dan Robben. (UO)
Bent u al bang voor de moskee? – DePers.nl
We schreeuwen moord en brand als de rechtstaat aangetast wordt? Nou dat valt tegen eigenlijk, al helemaal als het om terroristen gaat. Oh, excuus, om mensen van wie niet bewezen kan worden dat ze geen terrorist zijn. Zoals Hulspas stelt ‘laat dat maar eens goed tot u doordringen’. (UO)
‘Ik voel me soms een slachtoffer’ – DePers.nl
Nog maar één uit de gratis blaadje. Kustaw Bessems ditmaal. Helder, to the point, met enige ironie in de vragen maar zonder oordeel. Dat kunnen wij als lezer zelf wel over het wel en wee van een gederadicaliseerde Nederlander. (LM)
Slechtste blog
De ‘massa-immigratie’ kwam van rechts – Joop.nl
Ok, ok, ok, PvdA je afkeer van migratie en migranten is nu wel duidelijk. Wat zul je blij zijn he dat je het allemaal op rechts kan afschuiven? (LM)
GeenStijl : Arabische lente nu al pure liefde en vrede
Tuurlijk het Egyptische leger dat bestaat uit een stel secularistisch-nationalistische machtswellustelingen die vooral hun eigen positie willen behouden, jaagt de Kopten de dood in en wie noem je? De moslimbroeders, de islam, maar niet de SCAF, nee die staan voor vrede en veiligheid. Net zoals het Nederlandse leger. Echt waar dan ben je zo’n idioot dat je het verdient om in pek en veren over Tahrir plein te worden gejaagd regelrecht in de armen van de SCAF. (UO)
Arabisten…. | Artikel 7 Archief
In je overijverige poging om de duidelijk te maken dat de islam toch echt een haatdragende en gewelddadige religie is, schrijf je een zeer belabberd schotschrift tegen arabisten die alleen aan kracht wint omdat je er een afbeelding bij zet waarin Maurits Berger opgeknoopt wordt. Dan kun je dat plaatje wel verdonkeremanen, maar helaas.(MdK)
Wist u dat de rebellen in Libië gesteund werden door….Al Qaeda (brrr-alert). Wist u hoe we dat weten? Niet door een statement van Al Qaeda. Nee zelfs niet door een al dan niet vermeende Al Qaeda vlag. Nee dat weten we doordat twee belangrijke personen een…nee geen testament gemaakt hebben, of openlijk fan zijn van Bin Laden….nee ze hebben een ‘gatta’. Het komt immers al voor in het meesterwerk van Salman Rushdie. Dat kan geen toeval zijn. Al Zawahiri had het ook. Net als de Mohammed Badie van de Moslimbroederschap (is dat eigenlijk niet hetzelfde als Al Qaeda. Wij in het westen begrijpen dat niet, maar iemand met een bidvlek op het voorhoofd moet wel een terrorist zijn. Immers, een vrome moslim betekent radicaal betekent terrorist. Ow en de leiders waren seculier. Natuurlijk treden er alleen gewelddadige mensen op tegen liefdevolle seculiere rationele leiders als Muammar Khadaffi en Bashar Al-Assad. Want vrome mensen hebben nog nooit iets goeds gebracht nietwaar? Onbenul. (UO)
Frans Groenendijk heeft een nieuwe slogan en kreet ontdekt: ‘takfir!. Dat was wat die gasten van S4B riepen tegen Manji en Dibi. Echt waar. Of nee toch niet. Maar ja ik kon het ook niet begrijpen want dat is zo’n koeterwaals he dat arabombastische taaltje. Of het is toch wel takfir? Want dat is toch wat ze bedoelen he en Frans Groenendijk is specialist in het lezen van bedoelingen. En als moslims geen takfir zeggen dan bedrijven ze de liefde ehh takieja.(LM)
Slechtste nieuwsbericht/column
Niet zo zeuren mensen dit is best grappig. Carrefour weet niet waar het over gaat, moslimorganisaties niet, maar Carrefour zou toch echt pleepapier uit de handel gehaald hebben omdat moslims geklaagd zouden hebben over bepaalde tekens. Niet dus.(LM)
Bijna alles kranten hadden dit, maar niemand gaf er zo’n twist aan als de Telegraaf. Er zou een meisje, Katya Koren, in de Oekraïne gestenigd zijn. Een moslima natuurlijk. Want alleen moslima’s worden gestenigd. Door moslims natuurlijk, want alleen moslims doen dat. Maar weet u wat pas echt erg was? Dat ze ook nog eens mooi was. Echt, als ze lelijk was zou de Telegraaf er geen woord aan gewijd hebben of had misschien Rob Hoogland wel een instemmende column geschreven. Van het hele verhaal klopt echter weinig. (MdK)
EenVandaag :: Kanker taboe onder allochtonen
Serieus, één Koerdische vrouw schrijft een boek over de nare reputatie van k. Eén. En vervolgens concluderen we dat onder alle allochtonen k. een taboe is.(LM)
Elsevier.nl – Weblog – Welke allochtoon wil Nederlandse schoonzoon?
Al jaren worden er onderzoeken verricht naar partnerkeuze onder allochtonen. Er worden kranten over vol geschreven. En nu verschijnt er één onderzoek waaruit zou blijken dat autochtonen liever geen allochtone partner hebben voor hun dochter, en Paul Lieben vraagt zich serieus af waarom er nooit onderzoek wordt gedaan onder allochtonen.(UO)
Elsevier.nl – Weblog – Was Noorse schutter een geïsoleerde psychopaat?
Christelijke Noor schiet socialistische Noren dood. Afshin Ellian weet waarom: the Islam made him do it.(MdK)
Posted on December 28th, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: Multiculti Issues.
The next short video of Candid Camera, is old and funny:
Funny right? But it also points to something about human nature that psychologist Philip Zimbardo writes about in the Lucifer Effect. Zimbardo is mostly known from his Stanford Prison Experiment. In the website dedicated to his book The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil, he states:
The Lucifer Effect by Philip Zimbardo
Whenever I enter an office-building elevator, I automatically turn and face front, do not make eye contact with other passengers, stop talking or speak only in hush tones to a companion. Are these my personal preferences or idiosyncrasies? Hardly, since most people in most elevators behave similarly. Those actions tell you little about me but a lot about the unspoken rules of public elevators. Why do we do it? Unlike signs forbidding us to smoke or advising us what to do in case of a fire, nothing in any elevator says we should act in these strange ways. Our behavior is under the control of unwritten social rules, implicit norms, which govern appropriate elevator demeanor.
We can test if such situational rules are in silent force by violating them and seeing what our own and others’ reactions will be. The reactions will be either of distress or laughter at the apparent violation of these unwritten expectations.
The power of conformity is such that it can change people’s character: The lucifer effect. Another study Zimbardo is referring to, is Stanley Milgram’s ‘Obedience to authority‘ experiment in which he tested whether or not subjects would do what they are told even when they thought those actions are morally wrong and conflicting with their personal conscience.
While Milgram points to the situation that people do not question authority even when it is deemed excessive and unjust, the Stanford Prison Experiment tells us something about the danger of having not enough responsible authority needed in channelling people’s agency in particular circumstances. Both highlight the role of conformity to authority and provide an interesting comment to power in contemporary societies.
Conformism and integration
Now both experiments bring people into a particular situation they may experience as inescapable. In real life this can certainly happen. We only have to think about the Abu Ghraib atrocities or the Srebrenica massacre in recent times. But of course most people are not in such dramatic circumstances every day. Anthropologists but others as well have shown quite convincingly that people often do not just follow and obey authorities. They evade, appropriate and accommodate authority often to fit their own purposes and needs and very often they seek their own authorities with whom they feel they share some ideas or even with whom they just feel ok. Simply, because out there people are influenced by many other things as well and because they have other repertoires of authority and other authorities available as well.
Does this mean then that outside those experiments people are free and can do whatever they like? That they do not need to be influenced by any kind of authority? Of course not. Nevertheless that assumption does appear to play an important role for example in the debates about Islam. The hijab is typically taken as a sign of women’s oppression (by brutal men) or seen as something a girl wears without any pressure whatsoever making them freeling choosing individuals who are immune to the pressures of the social environment. Nevertheless people always make choices by negotiating the options they have. Girls without hijab have to legitimize their choice as well as those with hijab; both in relation to Muslims as well as non-Muslims.
At the same time people have to actively choose to belong to Dutch society since forcing would be against the idealized image of what Dutch culture is. Certainly within the Dutch islamdebates the pressure is very clear. Focusing on Muslims in the Netherlands it has become quite clear by now that the presence or absence of particular religious practices (ranging from praying to wearing a headscarf) is seen in public and policy debates (and sometimes in academic debates) as a sign of the extent to which Muslims are prepared to adapt to Dutch culture and/or as an indicator of integration. Muslims who try to find ways of being in and belonging to a global Muslim community while at the same time trying to abide by the Dutch demands for assimilation, are sometimes seen as the victims of the pressure to conform. But then to Islam or the Muslim community or ethnic community. It is certainly not the case that Dutch policy is rejecting Islam as a whole; we can only find that in Wilders’ Freedom Party. The Dutch government however is trying to ‘alter’ the development of a Muslim community towards a ‘more liberal ‘Dutch’ direction, that is, against orthodoxism. As Rath et al. (1999: 61) stated, ‘Officials and politicians wanted Muslims organized in the fashion that was viewed as acceptable and efficient in the Netherlands, i.e., with representative organizations or in coordinating bodies with approachable spokesmen, as if the Muslims in the Netherlands constitute a coherent community’ (my italics). The key issue is, of course, the notion of ‘acceptable and efficient’ according to the standards of the Dutch state. This is to large extent uncontested. Underneath that notion of being ‘acceptable and efficient’ however lie different opinions of what this actually means: among Dutch politicians but also among Dutch Muslims.
Conforming to individualism
Notwithstanding those differences in opinion there appears to be a strong current within Dutch population that aims for conformism of Muslims to Dutch ‘norms and values’. The interesting twist here of course is that Muslims within that discourse must adapt to Dutch culture that (in an ideal sense) highlights individual choice, authenticity, and freedom. Both Pim Fortuyn (former leader of the populist, killed in 2002) and Wilders emphasize the need that Muslims become liberated and submit to freedom and individualism. This is not something only populist anti-Islam politicians advocate. There is a general tendency to exclude those modes of Islamic religiosity and politics that are deemed unfit for secular society. These modes are then labelled ‘radical Islam’ and the more moderate political parties aim to exclude radical Islam from the public sphere while being more open to what they call ‘liberal Islam’ or even openly supporting it.This creates a contradiction; one HAS to conform but choose for that voluntarily:
The solution for this is ‘Acting normal’ as the rule; not meaning there is only one mode of acceptable behaviour. There is certainly a bandwith of what is acceptable what is not as long as one publicly appears to conform to a culture of authenticity and individualism. But everything outside is made to appear ridiculous at least or the consequence of individualism gone too far, whether it is some of the supporters of the Freedom Party, the people protesting at Occupy, the radical Muslims and so on.:
In this sense we probably should not look upon individualism and conformism as dichotomies but as mutually constitutive forces in social reality. In order to appear a ‘true’ individual, an authentic person, people need their lifestyles and convictions to be authenticated; the evaluated as truthfull, genuine, sincere and unique. But this is always done in a process of negotation that takes place within particular contexts wherein certain lifestyles are deemed acceptable while others are not.
Posted on December 24th, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: Gender, Kinship & Marriage Issues, ISIM/RU Research, Notes from the Field, Public Islam.
In discussies over de relatie tussen secularisme en religie speelt het lichaam een belangrijke rol. Of het nu om de hoofddoek gaat, (huiselijk) geweld, baarden, het lichaam wordt gezien door velen als een veld van zonde, verleiding, geschenk, heiligheid, last en dreiging, reinheid en onreinheid. Dit maakt het lichaam voor vrijwel alle religieuze instituties een ‘bastion van zonde en ketterij’ (in de islamitische tradities overigens zeker ook een bastion van genot en kracht), maar tevens een ideaal veld om religiositeit te stimuleren volgens hun eigen agenda en opvattingen. Voor secularisten is het lichaam tevens een ideaal veld om hun opvattingen over vrijheid te etaleren en op te leggen. Dit zien we deels terug in de recente controverses over de komst van islamitische predikers naar Nederland.
Zoals gebruikelijk hebben salafistische centra in Nederland rond kerst en oud en nieuw een jaarlijkse conferentie. En zoals niet ongebruikelijk is er ook een controverse over de komst van bepaalde imams uit het buitenland naar Nederland. In het verleden was er gedoe over Khalid Yasi en Haitham al Haddad om maar eens wat te noemen. Dit jaar ging de discussie allereerst en vooral over de komst van de Marokkaanse sheikh Al Maghraoui volgens wie kinderhuwelijken toegestaan zouden zijn in de islam. Hij zou deze kerst een lezing houden in de vernieuwde Haagse As Soennah moskee:
Daarmee werd hij al snel in de volksmond bekend als de ‘pedo-imam‘. Hij beroept zich daarmee op het voorbeeld van de profeet Mohammed die immers ook met een zeer jonge Aisha zou zijn getrouwd. En ook daar zijn natuurlijk de beschuldigingen van pedofilie alom te vinden op internet. Natuurlijk zou dat volgens de huidige maatstaven niet kunnen, maar de normen en patronen waren in de tijd van de profeet nu eenmaal anders en niet alleen anders in het Midden-Oosten.
Hier vindt u de uitgebreide reactie van imam Fawaz Jneid van de As Soennah moskee:
Niettemin heel begrijpelijk dat een en ander toch tot discussie leidde en tot beschuldigingen van aanzetten tot pedofilie en verkrachting. PvdA kamerlid Khadija Arib, die volgens mij een vrij consequente lijn volgt als het gaat om de positie van vrouwen en kinderen in Nederland, protesteerde tegen de komst van deze sheikh en stelde kamervragen hierover:
De As Soennah moskee waar de imam zou komen reageerde als volgt:
Ook de IslamDemocraten uit Den Haag reageerden: Al-Maghraoui van harte welkom in Den Haag. Overigens waren er ook mensen die de vrijheid van meningsuiting van Al Maghraoui verdedigden en ook vonden dat hij gewoon kon preken in Nederland. Voor anderen geldt slechts dat zijn ideeen bestreden moeten worden en dat hij dus niet toegelaten kon worden. Of het zou een uitgelezen mogelijkheid zijn om dit soort toestanden aan het licht te brengen. Op dit moment is volgens mij nog niet helemaal duidelijk of hij nu wel of niet komt (wordt vervolgd). update: Uiteindelijk is Al Maghraoui niet in Den Haag geweest. Officieel omdat hij te moe was om te reizen. Op maandag 26 december heeft hij een lezing gegeven voor de Haagse conferentie, per videolink.
De tweede imam en tweede conferentie betreft sheikh Mohammed Al-‘Arifi die naar de conferentie van de Fourqaan moskee is gekomen.
Dit werd onder meer opgepikt door het AD. Opvallend wel dat dit bezoek vooraf veel minder problemen opleverde en dat Al-‘Arifi ook al eerder (2009) in Nederland was zonder enige ophef. Maar de LPF in Eindhoven en de Brabantse PVV pikten het toch op zoals we in het volgende filmpje van Omroep Brabant kunnen zien. Daarin zit ook het omstreden fragment met Al-‘Arifi waarin hij zou stellen dat het toegestaan is om vrouwen te slaan:
Dit is de meest uitgebreide versie van de video die ik kon vinden:
Ik was enigszins verbaasd over die opmerkingen aangezien ik die niet helemaal in lijn vindt met wat hij gebruikelijk zegt over vrouwen en islam. Een uitgebreid transcript is HIER te vinden (H/T Carel Brendel). De moskee en Al-‘Arifi reageerden gisteren zelf met het volgende interview van prediker Al AlKhattab met de sheikh:
De reactie van Al-Arifi zal niet iedereen geruststellen. Immers, zijn opmerking dat je in zeer ernstige kwesties vrouwen een tikje mag geven met (symbolisch) een tandenstoker, gaat nog steeds uit van de man als hoofd van het gezin die bepaalt wat zijn vrouw wel of niet mag. Die reactie past overigens wel in wat ik van hem weet én past ook bij het beeld dat de Fourkaan moskee naar buiten wil brengen. Al eerder is de positie van de vrouw in lezingen en conferenties aan de orde geweest en ook daar is het slaan van vrouwen stellig veroordeeld (naar aanleiding van vragen van mannen en vrouwen uit het publiek daarover). Daarnaast wordt Al-‘Arifi ook in verband gebracht met terrorisme en jodenhaat hetgeen in België de nodige ophef veroorzaakt (hij gaat een dezer dagen ook nog naar Antwerpen).
Zie ook deze reactie bij Studio040:
In de lezingen van salafisten gaan opvattingen over gender en het lichaam meestal over vrouwen. Slechts een klein deel van de aandacht wordt besteed aan de man als de hoeder van het gezin hoewel dat wel bijna altijd de achtergrond vormt van de lezingen en geschriften over vrouwen. Opvallend is daarbij dat de sprekers voortdurend focussen op het tegengaan van macho- en vrouwonvriendelijk gedrag. Zo is in één van de lezingen (thuis in het huwelijk) van een Nederlandse prediker te beluisteren dat de man tijdens de huwelijksnacht vriendelijk moet zijn voor zijn vrouw, haar bezorgdheid wegnemen en in plaats van meteen over te gaan op de daad, moet hij eerst flirten, zoenen enzovoorts. De man wordt dus gezien als de actieve partij en de vrouw als passieve, ontvangende partij, maar de man dient wel op correcte wijze te werk te gaan. In het huwelijk moet hij in haar behoeften voorzien, aardig zijn voor haar en haar onderhouden. De beste man is niet de sterkste of degene die veel geld uitgeeft, maar degene die het beste omgaat met zijn vrouw met de profeet Mohammed als beste voorbeeld. De vrouw moet gehoorzaam zijn, maar hij moet haar beschermen, haar fouten en misstappen over het hoofd zien, haar onderwijzen in het geloof en haar verzorgen als ze ziek is. Hoewel de salafisten enkele jaren geleden nog in het nieuws kwamen vanwege de opvatting van één van de imams dat mannen hun vrouwen mogen slaan (met de kracht van een veer) tijdens een vragensessie over huiselijk geweld werd gesteld dat een echte man zijn vrouw niet slaat.
De soms ook ambivalente uitspraken met betrekking tot de gezagsverhouding tussen mannen en vrouwen is goed te zien in het volgende filmpje (noot voor sommige lezers het filmpje bevat klassieke muziek en nogal wat schokkende foto’s):
Aangezien we in een tijd leven waarin de seculiere norm de onverdachte norm is en waarin religie, in het bijzonder de islam, als de anti-these ervan wordt gezien en waarbij seculier zou staan voor vrijheid, tolerante, gelijkheid van mannen en vrouwen, is het niet moeilijk voor te stellen dat de opvattingen van salafisten voor discussie zorgen.
Raadsleden in gesprek met imam Al-Arifi via @alicevanderplas
Het gedrag en het lichaam van meisjes vormen belangrijke symbolische grenzen tussen wat men ziet als de eigen groep en buitenstaanders. De waarden betreffende vrouwelijk gedrag, kleding en omgang tussen mannen en vrouwen worden door verschillende groepen gearticuleerd om de ‘integriteit’ van de groep in stand te houden. De strijd over de controle over het lichaam van de vrouw is één van de belangrijkste grensmarkeringen tussen ‘wij’ en ‘zij’ in het islamdebat. De moslimvrouw is hiermee de belichaming in alle opzichten van dat woord) van de islam en het debat erover.
Posted on December 22nd, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: Multiculti Issues.
Al Jazeera has a very interesting series Muslims of France. In three episodes they reflect on three different, but overlapping and continuing era’s: colonials, immigrants and citizens:
As issues of immigration and integration raise Europe’s political temperature, this three-part series examines the history of Muslim immigration to France – a country where debate continues to rage over how to reconcile a long-standing tradition of secularism with religious diversity.
Today, there are an estimated five million Muslims living in France. A century ago they were referred to as “colonials”. During the 1960s, they were known as “immigrants”. Today, they are “citizens”. But how have the challenges facing each generation of immigrants changed?
Part I – Colonials
Muslims of France: Colonials – Muslims of France – Al Jazeera English
The first part of the series tells the story of the 5,000 Muslims who by 1904 were working on the shop floors of Paris, in the soap factories of Marseilles and in the coalfields of the north; of the Muslim soldiers who fought and died for France during the First World War; and the Muslim members of the resistance who helped liberate Paris in 1944. Born as North Africans, many would die for France. But how much did post-war France care about their sacrifices?
Part II – Immigrants
Muslims of France: Immigrants – Muslims of France – Al Jazeera English
The second part of the series explores post-Second World War immigration and reveals a generation of Muslims who, far from expecting to one day return home, began building their lives and communities in France.
Part III – Citizens
Muslims of France: Citizens – Muslims of France – Al Jazeera English
The third and final part of the series tells the stories of the young Muslims who grew up in France and entered adulthood at a time of economic crisis, massive unemployment and rampant social problems.
Posted on December 20th, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: Misc. News.
In 2009 ben ik begonnen met het ‘Beste/Slechtste van 2009’. Vorigjaar officieel omgedoopt in Dr. Kromzwaard Trofee 2010. En dan is het nu tijd voor de Dr. Kromzwaard Trofee 2011! U kunt vanaf nu uw inzendingen insturen voor twee categorieën:
Voor iedere categorie dient u dus een suggestie te geven voor het beste en voor het slechtste.
U kunt uw suggesties doorgeven via de volgende pagina: Dr. Kromzwaard Trofee Inzendingen. Inzendingen dienen hoofdzakelijk in het Nederlands te zijn. Artikelen met vertaling van Arabisch en/of Engels zijn toegestaan. U heeft de tijd t/m Tweede Kerstdag. Daarna worden de nominaties bekend gemaakt en op 1 januari de winnaar.
Verras me!
De winnaars van vorig jaar:
Abdelhakim – Het Gouden Hoofd
Trouw – Moslimgeestelijken in het geweer tegen terrorisme
De Faalhazen van 2010 waren:
Martien Pennings – Naziislam – Historisch onderbouwd en een politiek wapen
Martijn Koolhoven – Moslimwijk in shock na komst SM-centrum
Het zal wel niet aan deze prijs liggen, maar inmiddels is het artikel van Martien Pennings niet meer te vinden (muv de cache van google) en is Martijn Koolhoven ontmaskerd als oplichter. Zijn praktijken waren zelfs voor de Telegraaf te grof.
Posted on December 19th, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: Society & Politics in the Middle East.
On 17 December 2010 Mohamed Bouazizi set himself on fire; an act of protest that not only ignited the revolution in Tunisia but that also inspired other uprisings throughout the Middle East. Since then a lot has happened. The following reports give some idea about that and also about the major challenges that Tunisia faces in the years ahead.
Reuters
Tunisia’s Bouazizi Remembered door tvnportal
Al Jazeera
CBS News
The Real Mohamed Bouazizi – By Hernando de Soto | Foreign Policy
Bouazizi is, of course, not the only hero of the Arab Spring. There are thousands of them, if not millions. Neither is economics the only root of the revolution. But it is clear that the undercurrents of popular unrest — what led the economic martyrs of the revolution to such desperate acts — have yet to be resolved. Governments have been toppled, but the underlying economies still remain and are ignored at our peril.
We asked Salem, one of Bouazizi’s brothers, what his brother in heaven might have hoped his sacrifice would bring to the Arab world. Salem did not hesitate: “That the poor also have the right to buy and sell.”
One of the things I missed from many analyses is the comparison with Jan Palach and Jan Zajíc and others who died after self-immolation; I think a suitable one to make today. Both deaths make us think about freedom and the value of it not only in major public debates but the concrete meaning of value in everyday life and how a lack of freedom may result in despair, humiliation and transformation when people pay the ultimate price thereby exposing the emperor without clothes.
Several tributes have appeared on Youtube, dedicated to Mohamed Bouazizi:
But maybe the best tribute today is a film directed by Vaclav Havel: ‘Leaving’ I discovered by reading an article in the Newyorker that featured a report by Stuart Kemp in the Hollywood Reporter:
The Front Row: Václav Havel, Filmmaker : The New Yorker
Originally, and actually for my entire life, I wanted to be primarily a filmmaker,” and he recently fulfilled that intention: he directed a film called “Leaving,” which Stuart Kemp, in The Hollywood Reporter, describes as
the story of a government chancellor who faces a crisis after being removed from political power. He based it on Shakespeare’s King Lear and Anton Checkhov’s [sic] The Cherry Orchard. Havel said his film version revolves around “the theme of the end. The end of man. The end of an epoch. The end of some community. The end of love.
”
According to the press-kit on the film’s website:
The film is not just about the leaving of one politician from his office, but more generally about the phenomenon of change itself: every second something comes and something irretrievably goes. We do not know from where everything emerges and know even less to where it disappears. This is in fact a classic theme of dramas: the end. The end of a man. The end of an era. The end of a community. The end of love.
Posted on December 19th, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: Society & Politics in the Middle East.
On 17 December 2010 Mohamed Bouazizi set himself on fire; an act of protest that not only ignited the revolution in Tunisia but that also inspired other uprisings throughout the Middle East. Since then a lot has happened. The following reports give some idea about that and also about the major challenges that Tunisia faces in the years ahead.
Reuters
Tunisia’s Bouazizi Remembered door tvnportal
Al Jazeera
CBS News
The Real Mohamed Bouazizi – By Hernando de Soto | Foreign Policy
Bouazizi is, of course, not the only hero of the Arab Spring. There are thousands of them, if not millions. Neither is economics the only root of the revolution. But it is clear that the undercurrents of popular unrest — what led the economic martyrs of the revolution to such desperate acts — have yet to be resolved. Governments have been toppled, but the underlying economies still remain and are ignored at our peril.
We asked Salem, one of Bouazizi’s brothers, what his brother in heaven might have hoped his sacrifice would bring to the Arab world. Salem did not hesitate: “That the poor also have the right to buy and sell.”
One of the things I missed from many analyses is the comparison with Jan Palach and Jan Zajíc and others who died after self-immolation; I think a suitable one to make today. Both deaths make us think about freedom and the value of it not only in major public debates but the concrete meaning of value in everyday life and how a lack of freedom may result in despair, humiliation and transformation when people pay the ultimate price thereby exposing the emperor without clothes.
Several tributes have appeared on Youtube, dedicated to Mohamed Bouazizi:
But maybe the best tribute today is a film directed by Vaclav Havel: ‘Leaving’ I discovered by reading an article in the Newyorker that featured a report by Stuart Kemp in the Hollywood Reporter:
The Front Row: Václav Havel, Filmmaker : The New Yorker
Originally, and actually for my entire life, I wanted to be primarily a filmmaker,” and he recently fulfilled that intention: he directed a film called “Leaving,” which Stuart Kemp, in The Hollywood Reporter, describes as
the story of a government chancellor who faces a crisis after being removed from political power. He based it on Shakespeare’s King Lear and Anton Checkhov’s [sic] The Cherry Orchard. Havel said his film version revolves around “the theme of the end. The end of man. The end of an epoch. The end of some community. The end of love.
”
According to the press-kit on the film’s website:
The film is not just about the leaving of one politician from his office, but more generally about the phenomenon of change itself: every second something comes and something irretrievably goes. We do not know from where everything emerges and know even less to where it disappears. This is in fact a classic theme of dramas: the end. The end of a man. The end of an era. The end of a community. The end of love.
Posted on December 18th, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: Guest authors, Headline, Society & Politics in the Middle East.
Guest Author: Samuli Schielke
This essay is about Lenin, Tahrir, Islamists, poetry, choice and destiny in an attempt to provide some sort of theoretical synthesis of a confusing experience. It is the very slightly modified transcript of a lecture I gave at the University of North Carolina in Charlotte on 6 December 2011.
First of all, thank you very much everybody for coming here. I had no way to expect if I would get an audience of two or twenty, and it turned out to be more than twenty. I’m very happy about that. Thank you very much to Joyce Dalsheim and Gregg Starrett for inviting me here. And thank you to the University of North Carolina, and the Department of Anthropology and the Department of Global, International and Area Studies. This is a wonderful occasion to try to make some general sense of something which is very confusing: anthropological fieldwork in times of political and social transition. I have been writing a blog, and in every blog entry I have been presenting a different theory that has contradicted the previous day. It is very difficult to make any general kind of theory these days, but I’ll try to take the challenge offered to me in the shape of this presentation, and do some of that.
I’ll start with a little jump to history, because I think that the question which I try to tackle, which is that of the possible – the question: What is to be done? What can one do? Can what I do make a difference? Do I have a choice, and what kind of choices do I have? – is a question that was perhaps theoretically developed in relation to the revolutions more than hundred years ago by Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, the to-be leader of the Russian revolution, who in 1901 wrote his very influential pamphlet What is to be done? It is an interesting book to read for various reasons, and I want to open up with it, because he really poses the revolutionary question about the possible in a sense that deals with the tactics, and the conditions one must be able to create to change the paths of action.
Lenin’s book is basically a critique of the social democratic movement, it’s all about polemics against other socialists, and as such it is not very interesting for readers of our times. But it becomes interesting when he argues why the social democratic movement needs a vanguard of professional revolutionaries – because that is Lenin’s answer to the question about hat is to be done: In order to have socialism one must be able to create a vanguard of professional revolutionaries who are able to spread propaganda to all sorts of classes, and when the breaking point of the system comes, they are there, ready to take over. But Lenin also says is that this is a dream. This is a wildly unrealistic, fantastic kind of expectation: to have an all-Russian socialist newspaper, and a secret party apparatus that is there everywhere. But he says: It is a dream, and a revolutionary movement must be able to dream. If it doesn’t, it will become the victim of its own caution.
Lenin’s pamphlet is worth reading also in 2011, the year of the Arab uprisings, for various reasons. One reason is that he was successful. His plan actually worked out. And second, because his success was a terrible one. Lenin offers us a key question: What is to be done? – and a key clue, which is dreaming, fantasy. But he also offers us the historical case of a successful revolution that resulted in a devastating civil war, and, less than twenty years later, in the mass terror by Stalin that killed tens of millions of people. So it is also a very good reminder not to be too romantic about revolutions.
There are moments when revolutions are necessary, and in the Middle East it has come to this point. But even when they are necessary and justified, they are terrible. Things get destroyed, people get killed, and in the end the wrong people seize the power. This has happened in Egypt. The economy is at a standstill. At least a thousand people have been killed. And there seems to be no immediate end to the violence as long as the country is ruled by a military dictatorship that is very brutal in the ways it deals with protests. And it looks like Egypt will be governed for the next couple of years by an uneasy alliance of military rule and Islamist parties. All in all it would look like one should make a sceptical assessment of the current state of the revolution. At the same time, I must add that as a researcher I am a very decided supporter of the Egyptian uprising – so much that in my own work this year it has become very difficult to distinguish between ethnographic analysis and revolutionary propaganda. But I do not support the idea of the Egyptian revolution or the Arab uprisings for their own sake. There is nothing in revolutions that would be valuable for their own sake. They are valuable only insofar they open spaces that didn’t exist before: space to think, to say, to pursue things, to realise things that were inconceivable, or at least unlikely or frustrating just a year ago. And this has definitely changed.
This year in Egypt has been a time of transition when all kinds of people have been struggling with this question, which in Arabic is actually a proverbial question: eh il-‘amal? What is to be done? It is a vast field but I will take us through three concrete case studies which I run through quite hastily: One is revolutionary action; the other one is the dream of the Islamic state; and the third one is literary fantasy. They are all related in quite interesting ways.
Revolutionary action
Revolutionary action is the one which you probably all are better informed about, because it has been very present in the media in the shape of Tahrir Square, in the shape of witty revolutionary activists who speak good English and very capable of conveying their message to the world audience – an important role! It has now become fetishised, it has become copied by various kinds of social protest, it has become a tourist product. The American University in Cairo Press is selling not less than three different glossy coffee table books about the revolution. But it is important to remember that when it originally happened, its power was in its surprising nature. It took everybody by surprise. It took the government by surprise, it took ordinary people by surprise, it took – and this is the most interesting thing – the revolutionaries themselves by surprise.
People went out on the streets not knowing what would happen, not expecting what they could possibly accomplish (inspired and hopeful, however, by the example already set by the Tunisian revolution), but simply angry and frustrated about years and years of social experience that offered them over and over again great expectations of good life and over and over again had disappointed these expectations. People were combining an extreme sense of anger and frustration with a very simple step to occupy the streets that had not been possible in Egypt before. The moment it became possible, the entire picture changed. It required very little in material terms. It required simply the possibility of enough people to occupy streets and to hold out against the police – which had been impossible since 1977, when there was the last uprising in Egypt, which failed. This very moment created a completely new situation, so much that it has become a sort of fantastic, utopian, almost religious moment. Ever since the protesters were able to occupy Tahrir Square in Cairo and other squares across the country, this moment of standing in the square has developed into something that now is an essential part of any idea of changing the country by means of revolution.
When I talk about revolution, I refer specifically to a group of people whom I describe as radical revolutionaries, those people who expect the country to fundamentally change, the people to change, the way the country is governed to change. It is not necessarily related to a political agenda. Most people who feature as radical revolutionaries would in Egyptian terms be liberal or left, but there are also Islamists among them who believe in religious government but don’t believe in the established Islamist parties. This radical revolutionary group, which is a small minority – I think the active core is maybe tens of thousands in a country of 80 million people, and its wider supporters may be about a quarter of the population – has turned this moment of standing in the square into a dynamic continuously surprising momentum that has at the same time amazing powers and deep limits.
Its primary power lies in its spontaneous and surprising nature. We saw this in the 18 days of the revolution in January and February when this ongoing pressure from the street made any attempt to strike a nice neat deal between the government and the opposition impossible, because there was nobody to speak to. There was no revolutionary leadership that could sell the revolution. The movement could not be betrayed by its leaders because it did not have any. This has repeatedly happened, most recently in the events this November, when very brutal violence by the Military Police did not crush the revolutionary movement. Instead of running away and being scared, people flocked into the square. There was again a spontaneous reaction. This has created a form of spontaneous resistance that is able to thwart any attempt of authoritarian restauration, over and again.
However, we should be very careful not to glorify this standing on the square too much. When I speak with people there, there is sometimes this idea that this square is what it’s all about. In order to change the country we need to have revolution, we need to have more revolution. It becomes limiting. When we go back to one year ago, nobody could really even dream of this moment. Now that it has become not only possible but material, it has gained such power over the radical revolutionaries’ imagination, that it has become difficult for them to think of any other way of changing this country.
This has become very evident in the elections where the revolutionary fraction received a fraction of the vote that is actually less than their already small numbers. Most of the revolutionaries failed (or refused) to participate in any kind of election campaigning because they were distrustful of the parties, considering all the parties corrupt and interested in sharing the cake of power and not interested in what the people need – which is all true. If you distrust the Islamist parties in Egypt you should see who is running Egypt’s liberal party: Egypt’s second richest man. There is not much to be expected from that side either. But this distrust also means that there is an incapability of taking to the streets outside the square. It is related to the difficulty of organisation, it is related to lack of funds – for example, certain groups have huge amounts of money. Other groups don’t. When it comes to spreading leaflets, you need to print them and you need to pay money for that. It becomes quite a concrete problem.
Occupying the square is a very ambiguous form of social protest and of changing the country. This was very much seen in the events of the end of November when at first, a new uprising took surprised everybody. Friday 18th of November witnessed big demonstrations which were lead by Islamist parties who were using these demonstrations in order to strike a better power sharing deal with the military, in which they seemed successful. These were cautious demonstrations, and the supporters of the Islamist parties were not making any chants aimed directly against military rule, only against certain ministers. That evening, I was in Alexandria, and some of the young leftists – who had also been in the demonstration but had left it early because they found that the Salafis, the radical Islamists, were dominating it – were very pessimistic. Their sensibility was that the revolution had now really lost. Next day, one hundred and fifty people staged a sit-in in Tahrir Square. The police came to break the sit-in with force, but these one hundred and fifty people were enough to create a momentum where thousands of angry people flocked into Tahrir Square, entered a days-long fight with the police whereby more than forty, possibly one hundred protesters were killed, and forced the Military Council to change the cabinet (even if that of course means nothing). There was a huge breakup of the situation, everybody was shaking – end then the elections came.
This time, the protesters were surprised. They had surprised themselves, surprised the government, surprised the Muslim Brothers who had become very defensive. They had seized the momentum, they had once again half a million people on the square, then came election day. The revolutionaries had thought that the elections will fail, that the Military Council doesn’t want to let them go through anyway, that they will sink in a wave of violence, that the elections are pointless. The elections were successful. There was a 62% voting turnout in the first round, which in Egypt is a historical record – usually the voting turnout been more like 6,2%. It broke the neck of the new uprising because people were suddenly happy. They were happy that they could vote. And in order to have an uprising you need people to be angry.
So again, there was a new surprising moment which showed that the way to the square lacked the capacity, the imagination to go other ways. The revolutionaries standing in the square at that moment actually lacked the fantasy to realise what the elections could possibly mean for Egyptians.
Islamic state
The elections are now bringing a landslide victory of Islamic religious parties. I was just reading the results of the first round – we don’t have the final results because the elections take place in three rounds, different provinces voting at different times (the electoral law requires every polling station to be supervised by a judge and there are not enough judges in the country). One third of Egypt’s provinces have voted now. The results show that about sixty per cent of the vote of the party lists go to two Islamist party alliances, one of them the Muslim Brotherhood who are conservative, and one of them the Salafis who are badass fundamentalists. This has completely surprised some people, but anybody who has actually been following the situation in the streets has not been surprised at all. Actually the Muslim Brotherhood got less votes than one would think. With 36% of the vote, they actually did badly. They should have gotten 50%.
In a country that just had a revolutionary uprising against a corrupt system that was not an uprising in religious terms but one in terms of social justice, or freedom, or human dignity, why did people vote for Islamic parties? One of them, the Muslim Brotherhood, supported the revolution (but sided with the Army very soon afterwards), the other, the Salafis, were actually supporting Mubarak. Why did people vote for them?
The first thing to remember is of course, again, that the revolutionaries are actually a minority in Egypt. The majority of people were never quite that enthusiastic about the revolution. They were enthusiastic once it was successful, but as long as it was still happening they were rather afraid. But there is more to it than that. It is important to realise that this sort of revolutionary enthusiasm and action was not the only thing that has been going on in Egyptian society. Lots of other things have been happening.
One of the things that have been happening for decades is a sense of a moral crisis. Of course, moral crisis is nothing special. People who study morality say that they have never encountered any society that does not have a moral crisis of some sort. Describing things as being in a crisis seems to be essential to moral imagination. But I would say that there has been a serious moral crisis that has to do with the fact that traditional Egyptian conservative, very family-oriented, very much relying on patriarchal alliances, clear hierarchies of age and gender, has become more and more destabilised, first by Arab socialism in the 50’s and 60’s, and then in a more subtle way by consumer capitalism since the 1970’s. It has made people to live more individualised lives, and it has made people’s livelihood in most cases immoral, illegal, and against Islamic principles: stealing, taking bribes, cheating, all kinds of questionable stuff. This is a society where there has emerged an enormous expectation for something that is morally sound. And Islamists can offer that promise. They offer a God-fearing government, a government that is morally sound and does not steal from its citizens.
This is another great dream, one that has not been so much the dream of the people who went out to the streets against Mubarak, but the dream of a much vaster part of the population: Can’t we just have a leadership that is good? Can’t we have a pious, decent person running this country? This is a different kind of dream as compared to the revolutionary dream of transforming the ways in which the country is governed (one focussing on the process and practice of government, the other on the characters of the people in the government), and it leads to different consequences. One of the major consequences is that Egyptians who would not be Islamist radicals in any proper sense, who would think about life in very pragmatic terms, who would be sometimes more conservative and sometimes more liberal, would nevertheless in doubt cast their vote for a religious candidate because they think: We want to give them a try.
The Islamist parties have played their cards very well. The revolutionary fraction, including also breakaway Islamists, has huge problems to compete with these large organisations that have huge amounts of money, that have social welfare projects, and that speak to the people. How do we actually struggle with this? This struggle has so far brought a very important lesson: If you don’t want to just change the government but if you actually want to change the way society works and the way people think about society, if you want to win elections, if you want to have majorities behind you, it is necessary to have something which people cannot disagree about.
This is the power of the Islamist movements in Egypt. Most people think of them as politicians. They don’t actually have full trust in them. As said, their support of an Islamic government is a conditional one. They know that politicians lie. Islamist politicians lie, too. There is no question about that. Many think that they are too extremist, too uptight, but they cannot disagree that these are pious people and that they speak the word of truth. They speak about Islam, and that is true. I don’t like you, but what you say is true. This seems to be crucial when we once again ask Lenin’s famous question: What is to be done? A crucial answers to that question is to be able to develop an ideological standpoint that stands beyond critique in a specific social setting.
The revolutionaries actually have a couple of these. One is the hatred towards all kinds of governmental oppression. This is something on which they rely all the time. One is the promise of dignity and freedom. Right now the Muslim Brotherhood has been able to rally on this promise. It depends on their ability to deliver whether the more radical fraction will be able to reclaim it from them. One in particular has tremendous power: The blood of the martyrs of the revolution is an enormously important asset for the radicals.
We have learned to think of Egypt’s revolution as a peaceful one. It was peaceful because the protesters didn’t carry weapons. But it was not peaceful in the sense that nobody would have gotten killed. A thousand people got killed, and the fact that a thousand people got killed has become the primary power and asset of any radical revolutionary action. Whatever there comes a tactical politician or a Salafi, the radicals can say: Where were you when the martyrs got killed? This is very consciously employed now by the radical fraction which last Friday staged a symbolic funeral for the people who had been killed most recently. And this is once again a reminder not to romanticise revolutions. It is easy to romanticise revolutions, and it is even easier to romanticise peaceful revolutions. But peaceful revolutions, too, need people getting killed.
The question that remains now is: Why could the Islamists in particular seize the day in the elections, and why could the radical revolutionaries not? Why could they, in turn, seize the day and surprise everybody on 20th of November but then lose the momentum? This is a question about what kind of actions are conceivable, and how one can actually change the scope of conceivable actions. What kind of actions have people learned to be good at, and how can people in such transitional state try to learn different kind of actions?
Literary Fantasy
I take quite a detour and turn to literary fantasy. The revolutionary year of 2011 is a year that constantly runs ahead of fantasy. Things happen, and people keep getting surprised, sometimes for the better, sometimes for the worse. Sometimes it’s a disaster, sometimes it’s fantastic. It is interesting to go after the issue of fantasy itself, because literature has a lot to do with this uprising.
The ground has been prepared, especially for the more educated parts of the population, by a growing wave of socially critical writing. Blogging has been studied most intensively but actually blogs are just one part of a big scene of people exchanging facebook posts, publishing books, reading poetry in cafes. I recently saw some friends of mine sitting in Tahrir square – they were protesters camping there since a week – and reading from a poetry collection by Amal Dunqul who at the moment has become one of Egypt’s most famous poets. He wasn’t quite that famous before last year. Amal Dunqul (1940–1983) was a communist poet who in the 60’s and 70’s wrote extremely pessimistic and critical poetry. He was against everything. He was against the Camp David Agreements two years before they were signed. He was against any kind of concession to power. He the was the personified refusal. He had one of these famous lines opening one his poems: “Glory to Satan who said no in face of those who said yes.” (Last Words of Spartacus, 1962) In a very religious society like Egypt this is a dramatic way of thinking. Now, people frequently cite this verse.
I had a meeting with a group of teachers in a poor neighbourhood of Alexandria who were writing poetry, and we started talking about this. – This is actually my new fieldwork, which is not about revolution, it’s about writing. I hop I can get rid of this revolution stuff and back to the issue of writing… – We started talking about Amal Dunqul. What did this verse (and others) by Amal Dunqul do, what did it accomplish? There emerged two competing theories. Of course, I lean for the other, but it is important to cite both theories.
One of the two theories was argued for by the poet and teacher Hamdi Musa who said: Literature changes nothing. Look, Hamdi says: Every other cafe in Egypt has Qur’an recitation running on all the time, but the people sitting in the cafe are not getting any more pious from it. If the word of God doesn’t do it, how could my writing change anything? He says that literature is only about immediate personal pleasure. If it is transformative in any way it is transformative to myself. But then others argued: No, that’s not true. Literature changes one’s outlook at the world. It offers something to think about. In the first theory, literature changes nothing, and we are now in Egypt reading Amal Dunqul because something happened and he gives a voice to something that was happening anyway. The other theory says: Because we have been reading Amal Dunqul we think about the world differently, we value protest, which we wouldn’t do if we hadn’t read Amal Dunqul.
My good friend and research assistant Mukhtar Shehata turned the second theory into a dialectical model of fantasy, dreams, and decisions. ( http://www.facebook.com/note.php?note_id=284111558280237) Fantasy, he says, is a space of freedom, completely free from any need to realise it. It depends on what we know and our material conditions; it is not free in the sense we could imagine anything. But it is a space of freedom where we can think up something and we don’t have to worry whether it can happen or not. Fantasy, Mukhtar says, is the ground from which we develop dreams (ahlam in Arabic), in the sense of aspirations. A dream is something that calls to be realised: It is my dream to marry, it is my dream to become a university professor, it is my dream that the world will be a peaceful place – it is all something that calls for realisation. Dreams, then, become something that guide people’s actions. Because they guide people’s actions they make people find themselves in situations where they have to make decisions.
His example is private tutoring. In Egypt, private tutoring is the main income of teachers who are very badly paid. So for everybody who goes to school, the actual studying takes place in the evening in private tutoring, which costs a lot of money. He gave up private tutoring after the revolution. On one occasion, he was speaking with another teacher about it, and his point was that you first have to think, imagine that there could be something else than private tutoring. That is the first step. Second, you have to start to desire it: If only I could live without private tutoring! The third step is that of decisions, of it leading you to moments where you can actually say: No, I’m not going to do it. I do something else. – And this, then, changes the material ground of reality because you make certain choices, and these choices bring you new experiences, and these new experiences create new grounds of fantasy, and the circle goes on.
This could, of course, be easily put into the shape of a liberal or neoliberal idea where everything is about choices, decisions, character, building my capacities, etc.
This calls for caution. When we talk about decisions and choices, we also have to talk about the inevitable. You cannot study the possible without thinking about the inevitable. In Egypt, when you talk about choice, people start talking about destiny (nasib). It’s not in my hand, it’s in God’s hand: I want to marry this girl but in the end I marry somebody else and I accept it. In Egypt, the inevitable usually takes religious shape as the will of God. But no matter what theoretical shape we give to the inevitable, be it the will of God or if it is the material conditions of production in a Marxist theory, the fact is that any sort of choices and decisions have to reckon with the inevitable. We live in a world where our character is cultivated and our choices made under specific conditions that direct and encourage what we can do. But the trick is that our own fantasy is one of these material conditions. Fantasy is not something that is fundamentally different from the ground I am standing on. It is part of these conditions that direct what I can do.
This leads us back to the question about why some people could seize the day in certain moments, and not in other moments.
We are talking here about choice and freedom as limited freedom. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, a phenomenologist philosopher argued in the 1940’s that Human freedom exists only within limitations. Limits are not against freedom. Freedom is only there because there are limits against which we experience our freedom. In Egyptian Arabic this is described with the verb yitsarraf, which means to manage in circumstances that are not of your own making. This is the condition of any answer we give to the question of what is to be done.
Any specific answer, any specific trajectory relies on its own material means and possibilities – the Islamists having vastly more money, for example, and the radical revolutionaries being very well connected to the international media. You have different material advantages that make it possible to do something. But it is also fundamentally related to having learned to anticipate certain kind of situations and to master them well. In a very short time the radical revolutionaries have learned to occupy Tahrir. They have learned to do it so well that in this November they just mastered it. It is a most amazing example of self-organisation. Without any leadership, actually even prohibiting parties and speakers’ stages, they managed to make a much better organised uprising than they did in January. But at the same time, it means that they are really bad at anything else. If you look at the Muslim Brotherhood, they have for decades mastered tactical manoeuvring between an authoritarian government and citizens who want to have a good religious government and society. They have been so good at this manoeuvring that when these elections came and they seemed to win with 36% of the vote but actually lost because they should have gotten 50%, this was because of their mastery of tactical manoeuvring. For the radical revolutionaries, even of Islamist leanings, they became unelectable because they showed absolutely no backbone. A big part of people with Islamist leanings in Egypt who really wanted to have a religious government didn’t vote for the Brotherhood because they thought: We really don’t know what these guys are going to do. (This was a reason for many to vote for the more radical Salafis instead, whose stance and programme are quite clear) Their particular knowledge and imagination of what could be done got them a very strong popular support but also brought specific limitations.
The really interesting question, then, is: How and when can people adapt their knowledge and imagination? My conclusion, a very short one, is that the really revolutionary task is to accomplish a shift in the way people look at the world and understand the scope of what they can do, which leads them to act in a different way. This shift requires fantasy. It requires a kind of active fantasy: not just the kind of passive fantasy of imagining whatever one already was used to, but rather a continuous engagement of going beyond the limits. This is why the Egyptian revolution was possible in the first place: because this shift happened. But its future will very much depend on how different actors in the scene will come to develop their expectations of what is possible (and what inevitable), that is, come up with new answers to Lenin’s question about what is to be done.
Samuli Schielke is a research fellow at Zentrum Moderner Orient (ZMO), Berlin. His research focusses on everyday religiosity and morality, aspiration and frustration in contemporary Egypt. In 2006 he defended his PhD Snacks and Saints: Mawlid Festivals and the Politics of Festivity, Piety and Modernity in Contemporary Egypt at the University of Amsterdam, Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences. During his stay in Cairo at the time of the protests at Tahrir Square he maintained a diary. The text here is part of that diary which you can read in full at his blog. He also wrote “Now, it’s gonna be a long one” – Some first conclusion on the Egyptian Revolution, The Arab Autumn? and Egypt: After the Revolution
Posted on December 15th, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: International Terrorism.
bron afbeelding: VersPers
Eén bepaalde iemand stuurde mij een Wikileaks cable en even later zag ik hem ook op twitter voorbij komen (@re_orient). De cable geeft een inkijkje in hoe het Nederlandse leger en diplomaten in de loop van 2009 pleitten voor een verlenging van de missie in Uruzgan na augustus 2010. Dit deden ze, volgens de cable, door het proberen te beïnvloeden van bezoekers en beleidsmakers in Den Haag door de positieve aspecten van de Nederlandse missie naar voren te brengen; die positieve aspecten zouden volgens hen onvoldoende weerklank vinden aan het thuisfront.
Met name de Nederlandse soldaten én burgers die deelnamen aan de missie waren de grootste voorstanders van een verlenging, maar ook de Navo oefende veel druk uit. Men ontving veel bezoekers, variërend van journalisten tot mensen van het koningshuis. Deze kregen allemaal het 3D verhaal te horen: Defense, Diplomacy and Development. De zogenaamde ‘Dutch approach’. Concreet voorbeeld dat gegeven wordt is het bezoek van de minister van Binnenlandse Zaken en van Guusje ter Horst (PvdA). Uit de cables blijkt dat soldaten en burgers in Uruzgan ‘very passionate and boastful’ waren in het beschrijven van de resultaten van de missie. Maar ook Afghanen werden ingeschakeld zoals gouverneur Hamdam en de District Chief Mohammad Daudhad, volgens de cable wellicht ingefluisterd door de Nederlanders. Zij wezen erop dat ze wilden dat de Nederlanders bleven, dat de Nederlanders meer bereikten dan andere coalitie-partners en het moeilijk zou worden voor NGO’s om hun werk te blijven doen als de Nederlanders vertrokken waren. Beaujean, de vertegenwoordiger van de Nederlandse (burger-)missie, vertelde de Amerikanen later: “I see our talking points are finally starting to work,” en “once again we sold the mission in a good way.” Een interview met gouverneur Hamdam met de Financial Times herhaalde deze punten nog eens en kreeg veel aandacht in Nederland. Ondanks al die inspanningen was het voor diplomaten in 2009 al vrij helder dat een verlengde militaire aanwezigheid ‘zeer onwaarschijnlijk’ was.
De Nederlandse politiek, in het bijzonder de ministers Bos en Koenders, was zeer helder dat er geen verlenging van de missie zou komen, maar ook Verhagen gaf destijds aan dat de Nederlanders Uruzgan zouden overdragen. Niettemin werd ingeschat dat het vooral de PvdA zou zijn die onverzoenlijk zou zijn op dit punt en zelfs het kabinet erover zou kunnen laten struikelen mede in het licht van de slechte peilingen destijds en de kritiek op het leiderschap van Bos. Een val van het kabinet werd als onwenselijk gezien door de Amerikanen omdat het de Nederlandse militaire bijdragen in gevaar zou kunnen brengen. Men had veel vertrouwen in Balkenende gezien zijn eerdere verkiezingsoverwinningen en steun voor de missie en beschouwde de optie van een burgermissie met troepen elders in zuid Afghanistan als beter dan niets. Bos zou in een vergadering van de Tweede Kamer, zijn fractieleden geïnstrueerd hebben wat ze moesten zeggen en doen. Het CDA was juist druk bezig om druk uit te oefenen op de ontwikkelingsorganisaties in Uruzgan door de boodschap te geven dat hun programma’s misschien be-eindigd zouden worden als Nederland de provincie zou verlaten. Ook probeerde Verhagen uit hoe wat de ruimte was voor compromis door diverse uitlatingen in het openbaar te doen. De Amerikanen hebben op diverse manieren ook geprobeerd druk uit te oefenen: ambassadeur Daalder, generaals McChrystal, Petraeus en Jones evenals Obama’s gezant Holbrooke die met Koenders gebeld zou hebben. (Overigens ontkende Koenders destijds met de hoogste bevelhebber gesproken te hebben, dat zou kunnen kloppen maar is dan wel slechts de helft van een antwoord). Op een gegeven moment leek de regering aan te sturen op een compromis totdat de PvdA een motie in het parlement er door kreeg die duidelijk aanstuurde op een be-eindiging van de missie. Dit leidde tot onvrede bij de hogere beleidskringen.
In de pogingen om de missie te ‘verkopen’ aan de PvdA en aan het grotere publiek gaat het om de Dutch approach als unique selling point. De combinatie van Defense, Diplomacy and Development zou effectiever zijn op tal van fronten en natuurlijk ook humaner dan die van de Amerikanen met hun Rambo praktijken. Zo wordt beleid over het algemeen verkocht en gezien: rationeel, effectief, efficient en menselijk en rechtvaardig. De cruciale vraag is daarbij altijd: ‘voor wie’? Het antwoord maakt meestal duidelijk dat de effecten van beleid vaak zeer ongelijk verdeeld zijn. Eén van de weinige echt kritische geluiden kwam van Arnold Karskens die stelde dat de positieve geluiden afkomstig waren van figuren die voordeel hadden van de Nederlandse aanwezigheid terwijl degenen die dat niet hadden (waaronder een vertegenwoordigster van een vrouwenorganisatie) het op z’n minst niet erg vonden als de Nederlanders zouden gaan. Voor de besluitvorming zelf was het verkopen van de missie op deze manier, achteraf gezien, niet erg handig. De argumenten van de PvdA gingen namelijk helemaal niet over effectiviteit en rationaliteit van de missie, maar over de belofte die men aan de kiezers gedaan had. Dat is een volkomen ander vertoog waar de zegeningen van de Dutch approach niks mee te maken hebben. Men praatte dus voortdurend langs elkaar heen.
Afgaande op deze cables is er niets gebeurd wat niet door de beugel kan, maar er zijn toch wel wat interessante vragen ook in het licht van de val van het kabinet hierover. Waarom gingen politici door met het pleiten voor een verlenging als het voor hen en voor diplomaten duidelijk was dat dit zeer onwaarschijnlijk was? Waarom een pro-campagne op geen enkele manier rekening hield met de bezwaren van de PvdA die ook op een ramkoers zat door zich te verbinden aan de belofte aan de kiezer. In hoeverre houdt de Dutch approach nou echt rekening met diversiteit van de bevolking en de aanwezigheid van verschillende groepen en belangen? Leiden de activiteiten niet vooral tot een versterking van de positie van de elite ten koste (?) van anderen? Is deze Dutch approach niet vooral een poging om de complexiteit van het leven in Afghanistan te reduceren tot een eenvoudig pakketje dat verkoopbaar en onderhandelbaar is en mensen de illusie geeft dat de werkelijkheid wel overzichtelijk en dus maakbaar is? En waarom waren er onder journalisten zo weinig kritische analyses van de Dutch approach of van de pogingen de verlenging erdoor te krijgen?
met dank aan de nuttige opmerkingen van @re_orient voorafgaand aan het schrijven van het stukje
Posted on December 15th, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: International Terrorism.
bron afbeelding: VersPers
Eén bepaalde iemand stuurde mij een Wikileaks cable en even later zag ik hem ook op twitter voorbij komen (@re_orient). De cable geeft een inkijkje in hoe het Nederlandse leger en diplomaten in de loop van 2009 pleitten voor een verlenging van de missie in Uruzgan na augustus 2010. Dit deden ze, volgens de cable, door het proberen te beïnvloeden van bezoekers en beleidsmakers in Den Haag door de positieve aspecten van de Nederlandse missie naar voren te brengen; die positieve aspecten zouden volgens hen onvoldoende weerklank vinden aan het thuisfront.
Met name de Nederlandse soldaten én burgers die deelnamen aan de missie waren de grootste voorstanders van een verlenging, maar ook de Navo oefende veel druk uit. Men ontving veel bezoekers, variërend van journalisten tot mensen van het koningshuis. Deze kregen allemaal het 3D verhaal te horen: Defense, Diplomacy and Development. De zogenaamde ‘Dutch approach’. Concreet voorbeeld dat gegeven wordt is het bezoek van de minister van Binnenlandse Zaken en van Guusje ter Horst (PvdA). Uit de cables blijkt dat soldaten en burgers in Uruzgan ‘very passionate and boastful’ waren in het beschrijven van de resultaten van de missie. Maar ook Afghanen werden ingeschakeld zoals gouverneur Hamdam en de District Chief Mohammad Daudhad, volgens de cable wellicht ingefluisterd door de Nederlanders. Zij wezen erop dat ze wilden dat de Nederlanders bleven, dat de Nederlanders meer bereikten dan andere coalitie-partners en het moeilijk zou worden voor NGO’s om hun werk te blijven doen als de Nederlanders vertrokken waren. Beaujean, de vertegenwoordiger van de Nederlandse (burger-)missie, vertelde de Amerikanen later: “I see our talking points are finally starting to work,” en “once again we sold the mission in a good way.” Een interview met gouverneur Hamdam met de Financial Times herhaalde deze punten nog eens en kreeg veel aandacht in Nederland. Ondanks al die inspanningen was het voor diplomaten in 2009 al vrij helder dat een verlengde militaire aanwezigheid ‘zeer onwaarschijnlijk’ was.
De Nederlandse politiek, in het bijzonder de ministers Bos en Koenders, was zeer helder dat er geen verlenging van de missie zou komen, maar ook Verhagen gaf destijds aan dat de Nederlanders Uruzgan zouden overdragen. Niettemin werd ingeschat dat het vooral de PvdA zou zijn die onverzoenlijk zou zijn op dit punt en zelfs het kabinet erover zou kunnen laten struikelen mede in het licht van de slechte peilingen destijds en de kritiek op het leiderschap van Bos. Een val van het kabinet werd als onwenselijk gezien door de Amerikanen omdat het de Nederlandse militaire bijdragen in gevaar zou kunnen brengen. Men had veel vertrouwen in Balkenende gezien zijn eerdere verkiezingsoverwinningen en steun voor de missie en beschouwde de optie van een burgermissie met troepen elders in zuid Afghanistan als beter dan niets. Bos zou in een vergadering van de Tweede Kamer, zijn fractieleden geïnstrueerd hebben wat ze moesten zeggen en doen. Het CDA was juist druk bezig om druk uit te oefenen op de ontwikkelingsorganisaties in Uruzgan door de boodschap te geven dat hun programma’s misschien be-eindigd zouden worden als Nederland de provincie zou verlaten. Ook probeerde Verhagen uit hoe wat de ruimte was voor compromis door diverse uitlatingen in het openbaar te doen. De Amerikanen hebben op diverse manieren ook geprobeerd druk uit te oefenen: ambassadeur Daalder, generaals McChrystal, Petraeus en Jones evenals Obama’s gezant Holbrooke die met Koenders gebeld zou hebben. (Overigens ontkende Koenders destijds met de hoogste bevelhebber gesproken te hebben, dat zou kunnen kloppen maar is dan wel slechts de helft van een antwoord). Op een gegeven moment leek de regering aan te sturen op een compromis totdat de PvdA een motie in het parlement er door kreeg die duidelijk aanstuurde op een be-eindiging van de missie. Dit leidde tot onvrede bij de hogere beleidskringen.
In de pogingen om de missie te ‘verkopen’ aan de PvdA en aan het grotere publiek gaat het om de Dutch approach als unique selling point. De combinatie van Defense, Diplomacy and Development zou effectiever zijn op tal van fronten en natuurlijk ook humaner dan die van de Amerikanen met hun Rambo praktijken. Zo wordt beleid over het algemeen verkocht en gezien: rationeel, effectief, efficient en menselijk en rechtvaardig. De cruciale vraag is daarbij altijd: ‘voor wie’? Het antwoord maakt meestal duidelijk dat de effecten van beleid vaak zeer ongelijk verdeeld zijn. Eén van de weinige echt kritische geluiden kwam van Arnold Karskens die stelde dat de positieve geluiden afkomstig waren van figuren die voordeel hadden van de Nederlandse aanwezigheid terwijl degenen die dat niet hadden (waaronder een vertegenwoordigster van een vrouwenorganisatie) het op z’n minst niet erg vonden als de Nederlanders zouden gaan. Voor de besluitvorming zelf was het verkopen van de missie op deze manier, achteraf gezien, niet erg handig. De argumenten van de PvdA gingen namelijk helemaal niet over effectiviteit en rationaliteit van de missie, maar over de belofte die men aan de kiezers gedaan had. Dat is een volkomen ander vertoog waar de zegeningen van de Dutch approach niks mee te maken hebben. Men praatte dus voortdurend langs elkaar heen.
Afgaande op deze cables is er niets gebeurd wat niet door de beugel kan, maar er zijn toch wel wat interessante vragen ook in het licht van de val van het kabinet hierover. Waarom gingen politici door met het pleiten voor een verlenging als het voor hen en voor diplomaten duidelijk was dat dit zeer onwaarschijnlijk was? Waarom een pro-campagne op geen enkele manier rekening hield met de bezwaren van de PvdA die ook op een ramkoers zat door zich te verbinden aan de belofte aan de kiezer. In hoeverre houdt de Dutch approach nou echt rekening met diversiteit van de bevolking en de aanwezigheid van verschillende groepen en belangen? Leiden de activiteiten niet vooral tot een versterking van de positie van de elite ten koste (?) van anderen? Is deze Dutch approach niet vooral een poging om de complexiteit van het leven in Afghanistan te reduceren tot een eenvoudig pakketje dat verkoopbaar en onderhandelbaar is en mensen de illusie geeft dat de werkelijkheid wel overzichtelijk en dus maakbaar is? En waarom waren er onder journalisten zo weinig kritische analyses van de Dutch approach of van de pogingen de verlenging erdoor te krijgen?
met dank aan de nuttige opmerkingen van @re_orient voorafgaand aan het schrijven van het stukje
Posted on December 12th, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: Activism, Internal Debates, ISIM/RU Research, Notes from the Field.
Introduction:
Source: Flickr / Irshad Manji
Irshad Manji is on tour to promote her new book Allah, Liberty and Love – The Courage to Reconcile Faith and Freedom. She was in the Netherlands this week and during a debate with Green Left MP Tofik Dibi in De Balie a group of about 20 Muslim activists entered the room and disturbed the debate. Here I will attempt to give a brief overview of what happened and what the reactions were whereby I will treat both Manji’s appearance and the action of Shariah4Belgium and Shariah4Holland in terms in activism. In particular with regard to the latter I will treat their mode of activism not just as a reaction to particular circumstances, but as a tactic of creating a spectacle that belongs to theatrical resistance that dramatizes their project of both refusing the Dutch state’s and Muslim’s endeavour to produce liberal Muslims and their aim to achieve justice (how they understand it). The drama is also designed to evoke a reaction of moral outrage that actually confirms their project.
What happened?
According to some they are ‘salafists‘, according to others ‘radicals‘ and according the national news they were Muslims. It appears that they are part of a Belgian, Flemish, organization called Shariah4Belgium. This organization affiliated with the British Islam4Uk and with a Dutch branch, Shariah4Holland, wants to imply Sharia law in their countries of residence. It is not entirely clear what they mean with this, but for now it seems to work mainly as a powerful slogan.
They came in and shouted at both Dibi and Manji but:
Muslim Reformers vs Extremists
The speakers refused to leave the stage. Their discussion on the modernisation of Islam resumed after the police arrested a number of the extremists. Stated Manji, “I never felt afraid. Not once. Neither did Tofik. In fact, all of us refused to leave, even when police asked. We wouldn’t play on Jihadi terms. Some things are simply more important than fear.”
Emphasized Dutch MP, Tofik Dibi, “the disruption shows that even in the Netherlands it is necessary to continue the debate on reforming Islam.”
In several reports it was mentioned that the activists shouted ‘Takfir!‘ which Manji interpreted as an execution order. She also claims that the protesters pledged to break her neck (we can hear the latter indeed in the videos). Based upon the available footage however I do not recognize the ‘takfir’ call. What they do shout is ‘takbir’. It is a phrase well known and usually when someone shouts ‘takbir’ the audience responds with ‘Allahu Akhbar’. Which is exactly what happened as you could have seen in the video above. But of course the videos may not cover all what has been said. Nevertheless it would be strange if they shouted ‘takfir’ because that word is never used as a slogan, public outcry or the like. The combination of using Arab and Dutch/English slogans is interesting. The Arab slogans, as my colleague CB (checking the slogans for me) also noted, were mainly standard general religious slogans often used in protests. The Dutch/English slogans and calls were more specific for this occasion.
The next video does clarify a few of the issues mentioned above. It is in Dutch and made by the activists themselves. It appears from the video that the action was initiated by Shariah4Holland and that they asked support from Shariah4Belgium. In the video you will see the leader of Shariah4Belgium and some of their footage of them disturbing the debate:
Both the leader and the activists explain that they reject people who they regard as ‘murtadeen’ (apostates) to talk about Islam. They (Manji and Dibi) have the right to speak but then S4H and S4B have the right to protest and to object (‘verbally not physical’). They see the practices of Manji and Dibi as perverse among other things. According to Abu Imraan the mood in the debate room changed when his people entered and the speakers started to challenge them (Maybe he refers to Manji’s phrase: ‘the voices of sensationalism’?), which they responded to in a fierce manner.
Motives, means and objectives
For my Dutch readers here is the radio interview by Fouad Sidali with Abu Imraan, the leader of S4H:
According to him the hypocrites and apostates (Dibi and Manji) mock Islam and they wanted to make a statement that the mockery should be over. He says Dibi and Manji didn’t take them serious in the debate so they resorted to plan B: ‘a little takbir and a little takfir’. The interviewer ‘criticized’ the protesters also for spitting at Dibi and Manji but according to Abu Imraan they do not deserve respect. Abu Imraan declared Dibi an infidel but also claimed that this was no problem for him as long as they did not hurt him with his infidelity. He also refers to a debate on Tuesday 13 December where S4H might appear and says the police to be ready for them. They will defend Islam and not be afraid.
The next scene
The reactions in the media about the S4H/S4B action were very negative and often portrayed as a clash between Muslim reformers and extremists and on anti-Islam sites it is regarded as a demonstration of ‘true’ Islam whilst so-called moderates are only lying or indulging in some kind of fantasy islam and therefore, at least in the case of Dibi, the action was regarded as an ironic twist of fate. The more mainstream reactions however were more in line with the reformist vs. extremist or moderate vs. radical Islam/Muslims dichotomy. Some referred to S4H/S4B as barbarians or religious hooligans and praised Manji for being brave.
It appears that the dichotomy moderate vs. radical is used to not only alienate other Muslims from mainstream society but also used as a mobilizing frame. While S4H and S4B here use mobilizing frames such as ‘true Islam’ and ‘insults against Islam and the prophet’ people like Manji and Dibi use ‘moderate’, ‘liberal’ or ‘reformist’ Islam / Muslims as a way to call Muslims to stand up against intolerance and bigotry. The next part of the Dutch TV program Halve Maan which features Irshad Manji is not only very clear about the dichotomy but also about the attempt to mobilize people (the introduction is in Dutch, the interview in English begins after 30 seconds):
The problem according to Manji, and many others with her I think, is that too many ‘self-declared moderates’ do not stand up against these radicals. And if they don’t, or because they don’t, they are not only complicit to ‘this problem’ but she even challenges their self-definition of the moderates by saying ‘what is moderate about you when you are allowing these gangsters to define what Islam is’. She is therefore asking the moderates where their insistence and humility is to call upon the radicals to show their humility to God: “I want to hear your voices”. Such frames are used to inspire, mobilize and legitimate social movement activities and campaigns but ultimately always reduce the multi-dimensional realities. The dichotomies used by Manji but also by S4H and S4B do not cover, for example, the wide range of reactions among Muslims with regard to the actions of S4H and S4B. The same happens with people like Manji and Dibi of course. By some seen as collaborators (or traitors) with the infidels, by others seen as still too Muslim even though she tries to resist such reductionist views.
The reactions among Muslims I have seen so far are mixed but with a clear dominance of rejecting and disapproval. For my Dutch readers, watch here the debate at De Halve Maan, the girl you see on the videos vehemently opposing S4B/S4H is also in this debate:
I also have checked some of my informants and websites. Many see the attack as intimidating and agressive. Others think that the tactic goes against Islam; the tactic of intimidating but also throwing food (eggs) at Tofik Dibi. Several people think that an action such as this will only result in an increasing stigmatization of Muslims. Others however, although not approving the action, are a little more supportive since they see S4B as an organizations that ‘at least tries’ (without specifying what) with trial and error. And again others although some even disapproving the action say it is nevertheless necessary to support ‘the brothers’ against the infidels reagardless of what they do. And several support both the ideas and actions of S4H but also call for a ‘MuslimsAgainstShariah4Belgium‘. Several condemn the action, not because they agree with Dibi and Manji (on the contrary) but because it is against Islam, against tolerance and taints the image of Islam and Muslims. One calling them hooligans and a disgrace. Others condemn the action but also emphasize the need for reflection on the question if we do not have something of Abu Imraan as part of our self. Supporters of Manji define her insistence to remain on the stage during the protest as a ‘Rosa Parks‘ moment: “she didn’t move to the back of the bus”. Interestingly that is actually the statement of S4H and S4B as well: they dont want to be moved to the back of the bus (albeit with different tactics, aesthetics, frames and political identities).
Theater and Spectacle
It is not the first time S4B disrupts a meeting and I’ve written about it earlier as well. Every time the reactions among many Muslims are very negative even among those who do not necessarily object to the messages of S4B. The amount of support remains rather low in my impression. What is the use of tactics like these then? I guess we can look at it in terms of theatre and spectacle. What is happening here is that protestors orchestrate an event that breaks the usual order of things in debates and debating rooms. They do this in such a way, with dramatic acts of rupture, that dramatizes injustice experienced by the protesters and engages with media conventions in which the sensational is prioritized and whereby continuously social problems, enemies, leaders and followers are constructed, prioritized and pacified. So when, almost in a parade, they enter the debating room )with its highly formalized and stylized conventions for both speakers and audience), creating rwina (chaos, when things are not going the way they are supposed to go) they produce a stark contrast with what people expect and accept in such an environment. Violence is such a tactic, standing up and shouting in a debate is another one, spitting, threatening and so on are other tactics as well as using Arab slogans. And it works, immediately after the event the hunt for eye-witness accounts and video footage began.
The idea, also apparent among opponents of S4H, that no one is standing up for Muslims and against injustice, is significant. What S4H tries to do with this theatre and spectacle is to pursue visibility; both for their cause (injustice) as well as for themselves (as the true representatives of the oppressed). At the same time they try to render invisible any disagreement and weakness on their part or among Muslims in general. As such they use the media and how the media covers such an event is just as much part of the spectacle as the actions themselves as can be seen from Abu Imraan speech who turns the use of the label ‘radicals’ or ‘extremists’ against his opponents.
The media’s reaction confirms the S4B/S4H worldview and this theatrical resistance is meant to create that interplay because they know their message and performance will be interpreted through prevailing frames, concerns and norms. I wouldn’t be surprised therefore if they actually would agree with the Dutch intelligence service that fears a growing radicalization. I don’t. This is what we have seen before; a whole series of oppositional, provocative and militant disruptive spectacles that, taken together, can be seen as theatrical resistance. Using a video camera and Youtube shows they perfectly understand the power of theatre, spectacle and sensationalism in the age of social media.
At the same time however this spectacle is a site of contestation where different actors use the spectacle for their own agenda and interests; therefore the understandable fear among opponents that S4B/S4H only serves to legitimate islamophobia and to denounce all Muslims as freaks, barbarians and terrorist-in-disguise. Which is indeed what happens, showing that it is difficult to escape the islamophobic and anti-religious attitude whether one engages in such militant actions, responds to such militant actions, or not respond at all; actions designed to challenge the existing order may end up confirming them. Within this perspective, the insistence of Dibi and Manji to remain on the stage was by the way highly effective. Not only in the sense that the debate could go on but also in the sense of performance: by remaining steadfast within the ethic and aesthetic terms of the usual debate (not shouting, being supported by others) and by foregrounding themselves as defenders of free speech.
Posted on December 9th, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: Gender, Kinship & Marriage Issues, Multiculti Issues.
Onderzoeksbureau Motivaction heeft onderzoek laten uitvoeren onder 1570 moslima’s (met en zonder hoofddoek) en andere Nederlandse vrouwen. EZPress® – Hardnekkige misverstanden maken acceptatie hoofddoek moeilijker
Moslima’s dragen hoofddoek uit vrije wil en niet uit onderdrukking. Dat zeggen bijna negen op de tien hoofddoekdraagsters. Van alle draagsters zegt 87% zelfs nooit aan haar keuze te twijfelen. Dat blijkt uit een landelijk onderzoek dat werd uitgevoerd ter gelegenheid van de publicatie van ‘Hoofdboek’, een grootschalig project dat Nederlanders een kijkje geeft in de wereld van hoofddoekdraagsters. Zes op de tien Nederlandse moslima’s in de leeftijd van 15 tot 35 jaar draagt tegenwoordig een hoofddoek. In tegenstelling tot wat Nederlanders denken, beginnen zij hiermee niet op hun 13e, maar gemiddeld pas als ze 19 jaar oud zijn. Slechts 16% is 13 of 14 jaar als ze voor het eerst een hoofddoek draagt. Het Nationaal Hoofddoekonderzoek maakt korte metten met vooroordelen die er onder Nederlanders heersen met betrekking tot dit beladen kledingstuk.
[…]
Zo blijkt uit de onderzoeksuitkomsten dat in meer dan de helft van de gezinnen (53%) waar de moeder een hoofddoek draagt, niet alle of zelfs geen enkele dochter dit ook doet. In totaal dragen 80.000 moslima’s een hoofddoek; 40.000 niet. […]
De vrouwen dragen de hoofddoek met trots (93%). In tegenstelling tot wat sommige Nederlanders denken en zeggen, draagt slechts 15% een doek om haar aantrekkelijkheid te verbergen. 88% van de draagsters vindt dat je er met een hoofddoek aantrekkelijk uit kan zien. Veel Nederlanders (48%) blijken helemaal geen problemen te hebben met de hoofddoek. Vooral onder jongeren nemen het begrip en de tolerantie toe; van de vrouwelijke leeftijdsgenoten heeft 63% geen probleem met de hoofddoek.
Duidelijk beleid bij bedrijven
De acceptatie binnen bedrijven lijkt minder voorspoedig te verlopen. Volgens het merendeel van de ondervraagde moslima’s (62%) nemen Nederlandse bedrijven liever geen vrouwen met een hoofddoek in dienst. Dat beeld blijkt zelfs in versterkte mate te bestaan bij autochtone leeftijdsgenoten (78%). Veel bedrijven lijken het onderwerp echter dood te zwijgen en niet duidelijk te communiceren of – en in welke functies – ze een hoofddoek acceptabel vinden. Iedereen is unaniem in zijn oordeel: de meerderheid vindt dat ondernemingen meer duidelijkheid moeten bieden op dit vlak.
Het draait hierbij niet om het feit of bedrijven wel of geen hoofddoek op werkvloer toestaan. Het gaat de vrouwen om vooral om het scheppen van duidelijkheid. Als bedrijven hoofddoeken op de werkvloer niet toestaan, is dat niet per definitie een reden tot een boycot, zo blijkt. Moslima’s zijn hierin nog stelliger dan andere leeftijdsgenoten: 36% (vs. 28%) zou nog steeds producten kopen van bedrijven die het verbieden om een hoofddoek te dragen.
Opvallend is dat 18% van de niet-draagsters in het verleden wel een hoofddoek heeft gedragen. 31% geeft aan zich prettiger te voelen zonder. Toch geeft 41% aan gestopt te zijn met het bedekken van het haar om de kansen op een baan te vergroten. Ook discriminatie in het algemeen (19%) is een reden om niet langer een hoofddoek te dragen.Werken met een hoofddoek
Het dragen van een hoofddoek onder werktijd is een beladen onderwerp, met veel verschillende meningen. Deze meningen zijn ook sterk verdeeld onder de respondenten van het hoofddoekonderzoek. Zo vindt 85% van de hoofddoekdraagsters dat je in elk beroep een hoofddoek moet mogen dragen. Moslima’s die hun haar niet bedekken zijn hier terughoudender in (58%), net als andere leeftijdsgenoten (29%). Beroepen waarin het volgens Nederlanders geen bezwaar is om een hoofddoek te dragen, zijn:
1. Schoonmaakster (84%)
2. Radiopresentatrice (82%)
3. Caissière supermarkt (70%)
4. Buschauffeur (58%)
5. Verpleegster (54%)Toelichting op het onderzoek
Het Nationaal Hoofddoek Onderzoek is uitgevoerd door onderzoeksbureau Motivaction, in opdracht van het magazine Hoofdboek. Deels online, deels face tot face zijn moslima’s met en zonder hoofddoek en andere Nederlandse vrouwen in de leeftijd van 15-35 jaar geïnterviewd. Daarnaast is een aantal vragen uit het onderzoek ook gesteld aan de Nederlandse bevolking van 18 – 70 jaar. In totaal deden 1570 respondenten mee. Meer informatie: motivaction.nl.
Op basis van het onderzoek concludeert men dat zes van de 10 Nederlandse moslima’s in de leeftijd van 15-35 jaar een hoofddoek draagt. Het onderzoek richt zich, onder andere, op het ontkrachten van enkele misverstanden zoals hierboven al is vermeld. Meer precies betreft dit:Het Nationale Hoofddoek Onderzoek « Jenny Theirlynck
Misverstand 1. Alle moslima’s moeten een hoofddoek dragen.
Misverstand 2. Alle meisjes beginnen op hun dertiende met een hoofddoek.Misverstand 3. Moslima’s dragen de hoofddoek niet uit vrije wil.
Misverstand 4. De hoofddoek is er om de aantrekkelijkheid te verbergen.
Misverstand 5. Nederland heeft een probleem met de hoofddoek.
Interessant zijn ook de volgende uitkomsten:
Ik vind dit type onderzoeken altijd wat lastig. Een paar overwegingen hierbij:
Voor een wat positievere recensie zie Malika Mouhdi op Wijblijvenhier.nl: Hoofdboek: Een kijkje in de wereld van hoofddoekdraagsters.
Zie ook:
Hoofddoek, Hoofdboek, Facebook | Multiculti
Misschien is het omdat we niets meer zien. Maar wat we niet zien zijn de haren. Wat we wel zien zijn de ogen. Kijk daarom naar ‘Eyes of a Muslim’ die sprekend worden door de hoofddoek. Het is de enige manier om contact te maken met de vrouw. De ogen vertellen alles. Je hoeft alleen maar goed te kijken. De vrouw echt te leren kennen. Moslima’s met hoofddoek weten dat. Seksuele aantrekkelijkheid wordt privé met de hoofddoek. Niets meer en niets minder. Durf te kijken, door de ogen van een moslim.
Van Hoofddoek naar Hoofdboek | Dit is HODA
Het project Hoofdboek laat zien hoe mooi een hoofddoek kan zijn en het dragen daarvan. Zonder daarbij een religieus, politiek of maatschappelijk verantwoord standpunt in te nemen. Maar het laat ook zien dat jonge vrouwen met hoofddoek wereldser zijn dan we vaak denken. Je moet het alleen wel willen zien. Of anders gaan kijken.
Doe mij maar een hoofddoek | Brenda Stoter
Ik hou van hoofddoeken, echt. Mijn liefde voor het gesluierde gaat zelfs zo diep dat ik er best één zou willen dragen. Zo’n mooie met een stukje kant eronder, of met een bloem aan de zijkant of een simpele witte die mijn donkere ogen beter doet uitkomen. Als ik een Marokkaanse dame met een sierlijke hoofddoek voorbij zie lopen, denk ik vaak Wow, wat ben je mooi. Uit het onderzoek van Motivaction blijkt dat de hoofddoek allang geen ‘kopvod’ meer is, hij wordt steeds modieuzer. Helaas stuit de hoofddoek nog steeds op weerstand. Niet iedereen deelt mijn mening. Vooral Nederlanders vinden dat de hoofddoek in bepaalde beroepen echt niet kan.
Wereldjournalisten Hoofdboek: één vrouw 100 hoofddoeken
De hoofddoek doet veel stof opwaaien. Voor de een is het het symbool van onderdrukking en moet het dragen ervan verboden worden. Voor de ander is juist een verbod een vorm van onvrijheid en moet iedere vrouw zich naar haar overtuiging kunnen kleden. Discussies gaan vaak niet meer over de hoofddoek, maar over westerse waarden, islamofobie, godsdienstvrijheid en mensenrechten. Maar wat zit er nu echt achter – of onder – de hoofddoek?
winnen hoofdboek 1 vrouw 100 doeken | LINDA. blog
Heb je de reportage van fotograaf Sander Stoepker gezien in LINDA. 86 DE TUT IS TERUG?
Hij fotografeerde samen met goede vriend en voormalig reclameman Jan Knaap de beeldschone Boutaïna Azzabi, media-analist bij Al Jazeera en in het bezit van meer dan honderd hoofddoeken, en maakte er het Hoofdboek van dat vanaf eind november in de winkel ligt.
Jij en je hoofddoek
Upload je eigen foto’s met hoofddoek op de Facebookpagina van Hoofdboek.Win het Hoofdboek-pakket
LINDA. verloot tien keer het Hoofdboek (t.w.v. € 9,90) samen met 10 x 2 kaartjes voor de tentoonstelling Hoofdboek die vanaf 23 november in Centraal Museum Utrecht te zien is. Laat een reactie achter en win.
Volgende week opening van de expositie genaamd HOOFDBOEK
in het Centraal Museum Utrecht. Wij hebben het gelijknamige
magazine/boek ontworpen en gerealiseerd dat volgende week ook
te koop zal zijn in de winkels. Kijk voor meer informatie
op www.centraalmuseum.nl en volgende week voor meer
beeld van HOOFDBOEK op onze blog.
Bent el Medina: 1 vrouw & 100 hoofddoeken
“Ik heb nog nooit een negatieve opmerking gehad over mijn hoofddoek. Dat heeft me best wel verbaasd. Komt denk ik door hoe je jezelf opstelt en presenteert.” (Boutaïna Azzabi)
Hoofddoek maakt come back – Stylehunters.nl
Wij Stylehunters voorspellen een nieuwe trend in fashionland: de hoofddoek. Het is misschien wat gedurfd, maar niet iets nieuws. In de jaren vrijftig en zestig was de hoofddoek een gerespecteerde accessoire: het stond voor stijl en elegantie. Van wol tot aan zijden sjaals in opvallende kleuren en sjieke designs. In Hollywood was de hoofddoek populair onder filmsterren als Audrey Hepburn, Jacky Kennedy of Grace Kelly.
Strateeg Knaap start Cup of Culture – Nieuws – Adformatie
Jan Knaap, voormalig partner van reclamebureau Etcetera, stapt in maatschappelijke projectontwikkeling met zijn nieuwe stichting Cup of Culture.
Met Cup of Culture wil Jan Knaap de aandacht vestigen op maatschappelijke thema’s die naar zijn mening een betere positie verdienen, onder meer door die thema’s niet als probleem maar juist als merk neer te zetten
Dit Denk Derek – Hoofd- en Bijzaken
Vrouwen met een hoofddoek zijn gewoon vrouwen. Met een hoofddoek. De term ‘hoofddoek’ is dus ook niet de soortnaam van deze vrouwen, maar slechts de benaming van het kledingstuk dat zij veelal vrijwillig dragen. Vanwege achterliggende gevoelens en gedachten die deze vrouwen hebben bij de Islamitische voorschriften op het punt van uiterlijk vertoon. Binnen de Islam wordt het dragen van de doek als kuis gezien, het is verplicht. Voor mannen gelden in de Islam overigens soortgelijke wetten. Het is niet zo dat het mannen in de Islam vrij staat om vrij en blij te vrijen met wie ze maar willen. De ‘ongelijkheid’ tussen man en vrouw binnen dit geloof, is een door de media gevoed en uitvergroot misverstand. Daarom vind ik het Hoofdboek ook een goed initiatief, alleen vind ik het jammer dat dit van vrouwen met een hoofddoek weer een of andere aparte groep maakt.
Het dragen van een hoofddoek maakt een vrouw namelijk niet per definitie tot een heldin of zo. Vrouwen met een hoofddoek zijn gewoon vrouwen. Met een hoofddoek. Het overgrote deel studeert, werkt en beschikt over een sociaal leven. Ze vormen een uiterst diverse groep binnen onze samenleving. Ook zo’n debiel fenomeen is namelijk, dat één individu van een groep die ‘anders’ is meteen model staat voor die specifieke groep. Er zijn zoveel verschillen als dat er mensen zijn, meer zelfs. De hele indeling in ‘groepen’ is dus als een totaal kansloos concept an sich.
Posted on December 7th, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: ISIM/RU Research, Notes from the Field.
Mesa 2011 ended last Sunday. It was a rewarding conference this year in Washington DC. I met several new people, saw some old colleagues back after quite a while and attended several interesting panels. On Sunday morning I participated in a round table discussion with Gudrun Kraemer, Free University Berlin – Mirjam Kuenkler, Princeton University – Thomas Pierret, University of Edinburgh – and Hilary Kalmbach, University of Oxford; the latter also being the convenor and chair of this session. The title of this panel was Mapping Change in Islamic Authority: Shifting Cultures of Knowledge, Learning, and Practice. I’m not going to summarize this panel for you (you had to be there…) but I will share with you my notes which I used for a brief talk.
Social Field
Based upon my research on the Salafi movement I wanted explore the usefulness of Bourdieu’s social field approach with regard to the matter of authority. Now Bourdieu is certainly not unproblematic in this regard. In his work he maintained a very rigid distinction between authority and lay people, or as I put it (certainly not appreciated by everyone in the discussion given its obvious neo-liberal market connotation) between consumers and producers. Nevertheless his explorations of other fields shows that there are possibilities to explore the religious field in a more dynamic way. Following Bourdieu these fields are characterized by opposing forces and power struggles. I will use this idea as to point some ideas and suggestions of what we can look at, in a rather tentative way. In 1999, almost 10 years after the establishment of the first Salafi networks in the Netherlands a blacklist was published that featured several Salafi preachers, denouncing them as people from the Muslim Brotherhood, innovators and lacking piety. The list was issued by a then new network connected: the Madkhali network. A network of scholars and students that claims to shy away from politics and is loyal to Saudi (and other) authorities. They did the same in other countries as well for example in the UK and in the US. It immediately gave them a place among the others, albeit a contested one.
Establishing and performing authority through genealogy
The competition in the transnational Salafi field results to a large extent from conflicting claims by Salafis over positions of authority over what is, and how to establish, the authentic truth of Islam and what constitutes a trustworthy, genuine and reliable authority.. It has been in particular the Madkhali network that has established itself by identifying a false authority. They also issued lists of trustworthy scholars in order to authenticate their own religious knowledge in the sense that it is they who adhere to the silsila (or chain) of ‘true’, ‘trustworthy’, and ‘genuine’. By looking at the student-scholar relationship on this list, we can, for example, trace the inherited knowledge of someone like Ibn Baz back to the days of the Salaf. Like in Islamic traditions the isnad or the Chain of Authenticity is crucial instrument for ascertaining the validity of a hadith, this Salafi chain is used to trace the lineage of knowledge of a Salafi Shaykh to the Prophet Muhammad and his companions, perhaps somewhat similar (I’m speculating here) as the chain of masters and students, ‘silsila’ among Sufism. What is authentic is not only decided upon people’s mastery of knowledge but also about scholars with a reputation of being pious. It is a way to ascertain that one is on the correct path and to delegitimize those who are not part of the chain. It appears that within the religious field there are differences with regard to values, hierarchies and systems of aesthetic judgement serving to legitimate and authenticate particular practices, styles, and subjects. This is contrary to how Bourdieu treats the religious field but less as to how he treats other fields (such as arts).
The religious field and the media field
The religious field is not always clearly demarcated and isolated from other fields such as the media. A few of the lay preachers for example have a made an appearance on TV which in different ways contributed to their authority. It appears that their authority in the ‘Islamic’ field also rendered them authoritative in the Dutch media field in which debates about Islam and the nature and interpretation of Islam dominate. In both the religious and the media field their image as uncompromising about ‘what Islam really says’ contributes to this authority, albeit with a different interpretation and evaluation. Often in defending their own position in the public sphere they do not so much use arguments based upon works of scholars, the Qur’an, hadith, and Sunna, as a means of authenticating their knowledge. Instead they point to the freedom of speech and freedom of religion thereby demonstrating their adjustment to the rules of the game in the media field. At the same time these different fields interact. These Salafi preachers often get verbally attacked in the media and in particular on the Internet after their TV appearances. For many Muslim youth, a prime example of both how Muslims are treated in public (with double standards) and how one nevertheless should remain steadfast. Furthermore what this case alludes to I think is the issue of professionalization. There is much talk on Salafi activists about the need to become more professional in their outreach and becoming media-savvy is part of that. Muslims more critical about the Salafi preachers actually accuse of them of not being professional and often mock there media appearances. Dutch salafis in turn look to the English networks as example of professional media outreach while some of the English look at the Dutch as to how to respond to a strong anti-Islam party.
Genres of authority?
In Bourdieu’s work different fields are to be distinguished but not always separated. With regard to the making of authority we should not limit ourselves to analyze what kind of or how much people master particular types of religious knowledge but we can look to what kind of values, hierarchies and systems of aesthetic judgement serve to legitimate and authenticate particular practices, styles, and subjects. It is very clear that in a mediatised context not only mastery of religious knowledge counts but also how media savvy people are. Focus should be on how fields are positioned in relation to other fields, on distributions of value and resources, habitus and comparing them by focusing on their discursive resources, the kinds of effects they have when put to use, the strategies producers (speakers) pursue and the ends they achieve. It is clear that only some institutional affiliation is not enough to provide someone with authority. Based upon that we can probably distinguish between different genres of authority as came up in the discussion that ensued from the presentation. Whereby for example Amr Khaled (not a salafi) represents a different genre than for example Bin Baz in the past and both are in turn different from that of Nasr Abou Zayd. These differences are not only the result of differences in content or institution but also in aesthetics. Taken together they might constitute (following Bakhtin and his notion of ‘speech genres’) a set of peformative features combining different repertoires (for example media and religious capital) based upon more or less (but also contested) patterns and expectations. The persuasive power represented or manifested within the words of the preacher then resides outside his text (for example his or hers eloquence, gender, relation to particular institutions, gestures, styles of clothing and so on). Maybe this idea merits further exploration?
Posted on December 1st, 2011 by martijn.
Categories: Society & Politics in the Middle East.
Al Jazeera aired a very interesting documentary on the uprising in Bahrain:
Bahrain: An island kingdom in the Arabian Gulf where the Shia Muslim majority are ruled by a family from the Sunni minority. Where people fighting for democratic rights broke the barriers of fear, only to find themselves alone and crushed.
This is their story and Al Jazeera is their witness – the only TV journalists who remained to follow their journey of hope to the carnage that followed.
This is the Arab revolution that was abandoned by the Arabs, forsaken by the West and forgotten by the world.
Editor’s note: This documentary recently won the Foreign Press Association Documentary of the Year award in London.
H/T: A.M.